HE 

3J2 

1721a. 


yC-NRLF 


^B    ^7    3b7 


^ 


-.-^.^i&^x^?a- 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  CONFERENCE 


ON 


HIGHWAY  ECONOMICS  AND 
HIGHWAY  TRANSPORT 

HELD  AT  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TENNESSEE 
KNOXVILLE 

OCTOBER  10-11,  1921 


Edited  by 
N.  W.  DOUGHERTY 


>Vr' 


I  Published  by  the 

j    HIGHWAY  EDUCATION  BOARD 

Fcrm€rT;p^'tfiS  Highway  and  Highway  Transport 

Education  Committee 

Willard  Building,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1922 


HIGHWAY  EDUCATION  BOARD 
Willard  Building,  Washington,  D.  C. 

John  J.  Tigert,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  Chairman. 

ThOxMAS   H.   MacDonald,  Chief   of   the   Bureau   of   Public   Roads,   U.    S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

F.  C.  BoGGS,  Colonel,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  War  Deepartment. 

Rov  D.  Chapin,  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Society  for  the 


F.  L.  Bishop, 
Promotion 


'tized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
p  2007  with  funding  from 


H.  W.  Alden.  ^I 


Additional  copies  of  this  publication  may  be  procured  from 
the  Highway  Education  Board,  Willard  Building,  Washington, 
D.  C,  at  15  cents  a  copy,  which  is  cost  of  printing  and  mailing. 


http://www.archive.org/details/economicshighwaOOconfrich 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  CONFERENCE 


ON 


HIGHWAY  ECONOMICS  AND 
HIGHWAY  TRANSPORT 

HELD  AT  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TENNESSEE 
KNOXVILLE 

OCTOBER  10-11,  1921 


Edited  by 
N.W.DOUGHERTY 


Published  by  the 

1  HIGHWAY  EDUCATION  BOARD 

Formerly  the  Highway  and  Highway  Transport 

Education  Committee 

Willard  Building,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1922 


NATIONAL  CAPITAL  PRESS,  INC.,  WASHINGTON,   D.  C. 


Program 


Regional  Conference  for  Study  of  Highway  Economics  and  Highway 
Transport,  The  University  of  Tennessee,  Knoxville.  Cooperating  with 
Highway  Education  Board,  October  lO,  ii,  1921. 

Monday,  October  lO 

Business  Men's  Club 

2.00  p.  m.  H.  A.  Morgan,  President,  the  University  of  Tennessee,  Remarks 
on  Rural  Transportation. 

2.30  p.  m.  Thomas  H.  MacDonald,  Chief,  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  The  Problems  to  be  Studied. 

3.00  p.  m.  N.  W.  Dougherty,  Professor  Civil  Engineering,  University  of 
Tennessee,  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  in 
Typical  Counties  of  Tennessee.     Discussion. 

6.30  p.  m.     Dinner,  Business  Men's  Club. 

Visiting  delegates  guests  of  Knoxville  Board  of  Commerce  and 
Knoxville  Automobile  Club. 

Address  M.  O.  Eldridge,  Washington,  D.  C,  Director  of  Roads, 
American  Automobile  Association,   Highway   Hazards. 

Address,  Major  I.  C.  Moller,  25  Broadway,  New  York  City. 
Cost  of  Motor  Vehicle  Operation. 

Address,  Pyke  Johnson,  Chairman,  Highways  Committee,  Na- 
tional Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C, 
The  Living  Road. 

Tuesday,  October  11 

ESTABROOK  HalL^  UNIVERSITY  OF  TENNESSEE 

9.00  a.  m.     B.  L.  Cunliff,  Maintenance  Engineer,  Tennessee  Department  of 
Highways,  Report  of  Maintenance  Plan  for  Tennessee. 
Discussion. 

10.00  a.  m.     General  discussion. 

11.00  a.  m.     H.   G.   McGee,   Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  Akron,   Ohio. 
Justifiable  Expenditure  on  the  Highway  Program. 
Discussion. 

12.30  m.  Luncheon. 

Visiting  delegates  guests  of   Engineering   College. 

2.00  p.  m.     Automobile  trip  inspecting  highways  and  highway  construction. 

1 


ivi323543 


Introductory 

The  Sixth  Regional  Conference  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Highway 
Education  Board,  formerly  the  Highway  and  Highway  Transport  Education 
Committee,  was  called  to  order  by  Dean  Charles  E.  Ferris  of  the  College 
of  Engineering,  University  of  Tennessee.  Dean  Ferris  welcomed  the  delegates 
to  Knoxville  and  to  the  University.  He  stated  briefly  the  events  which  led 
up  to  the  conference  and  expressed  the  hope  that  out  of  the  conference  lasting 
good  would  come  to  Tennessee  and  the  adjoining  states.  Delegates  were 
asked  to  register  and  states  were  represented  as  follows:  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Georgia,  New  York,  District  of  Columbia  and  Tennessee. 

D.  Q.  McComb,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Tennessee  Department  of  High- 
ways, was  elected  permanent  chairman  of  the  conference.  Walter  S.  Sm.ith 
was  elected  secretary. 

The  conference  met  in  three  regular  sessions;  namely,  the  afternoon  and 
evening  of  October  lo,  and  morning  of  October  ii.  The  proceedings  of  this 
conference  are  confined  to  the  papers  presented  at  these  sessions.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  sessions  the  delegates  engaged  in  round  table  discussions  at 
the  luncheon  held  at  noon,  October  ii.  Practically  all  delegates  present 
entered  into  the  discussion.  Stenographic  records  were  not  taken  and  as  a 
consequence  the  discussion  of  the  round  table  cannot  be  printed  in  these 
proceedings. 

N.  W.  Dougherty. 


Table  of  Contents 

Page 

Introductory 3 

Rural  Transportation 5 

H.  A.  Morgan. 

The  Problems  to  be  Studied 6 

Thos.  H.  MacDonald. 

Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 9 

N.  W.  Dougherty. 

The  Program  of  the  Highway  Education  Board 20 

Walton  C.  John. 

Highway  Hazards 23 

M.  O.  Eldridge. 

Cost  of  Motor  Vehicle  Operation 27 

Major  I.  C.  Moller. 

The  Living  Road 33 

Pyke  Johnson. 

Maintenance  Plan  for  Tennessee  Highways 38 

Ben  L.  Cunliff. 

Discussion 40 

W.  R.  Neel,  W.  N.  Gladson. 

Justifiable  Expenditures  on  the  Highway  Program 42 

H.  G.  McGee. 


Remarks  of  Dr.  H.  A.  Morgan 

President  of  the  University  of  Tennessee 

Rural  transportation  is  one  of  the  big  questions  that  is  before  the  people 
today.  It  means  much  to  the  city  dweller  to  travel  in  comfoft  over  miles 
of  country  roads,  but  the  smooth,  hard  surfaced  highway  means  more  than 
comfort  and  relaxation  to  the  farmer.  The  country  church — the  heart  of  the 
community — the  consolidated  school,  which  has  grown  to  rival  the  best  city 
school,  increased  rural  mail  service,  the  social  life  so  vital  to  make  a 
contented  people — all  demand  improved  roads.  Good  roads  expand  the  zone 
for  profitable  growing  of  perishable  crops  and  for  the  production  of  dairy 
products;  they  better  marketing  conditions;  they  reduce  the  cost  of  marketing; 
they  encourage  production. 

Unfortunately,  economic  study  of  highway  transportation  has  been  neglected. 
Much  wealth  has  been  wasted  through  our  ignorance  of  the  exact  problem 
to  be  solved,  and  of  the  correct  solution.  We  have  built  roads  unfitted  to 
the  traffic  which  they  must  carry.  It  is  my  pleasure,  therefore,  as  president 
of  the  University  of  Tennessee,  to  welcome  you  to  this  conference  for  the 
study  of  highway  economics.  We  sincerely  hope  that  out  of  this  conference 
will  come  much  valuable  information  that  will  guide  us  in  the  wise  expenditure 
of  the  funds  which  our  people  have  generously  voted  for  the  building  of 
better  roads.  With  75  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  state  living  in 
rural  communities,  or  on  farms,  it  is  but  logical  that  the  University  of 
Tennessee  should  be  interested  in  the  problems  of  rural  transportation. 

Years  ago  the  College  of  Engineering  began  holding  annual  conferences 
of  county  officials  responsible  for  the  building  and  maintenance  of  highways. 
This  beginning  has  grown  into  a  winter  short  course  of  six  weeks,  conducted 
by  the  Engineering  Faculty,  cooperating  with  the  Engineers  of  the  State 
Highway  Department. 

When  the  first  State  Highway  Commission  was  formed,  the  Dean  of  the 
College  of  Engineering  was  an  ex-officio  member  and  for  four  years  gave 
much  time  and  thought  to  the  organization  of  this  work.  The  Engineering 
College  under  his  leadership  devotes  much  time  to  instruction  in  Highway 
Engineering.  Regular  courses  in  the  study  of  Highway  Construction  and 
Highway  Economics  are  offered  to  students  of  the  Universit)^  Similar  courses 
are  offered  to  the  students  of  the  six  weeks  short  course. 

As  a  result  of  this  activity  on  the  part  of  the  University  in  the  solution 
of  the  transportation  problems,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  fully  50  per  cent 
of  the  engineers  now'  engaged  in  the  building  of  highways  in  the  state 
received  their  technical  training  either  in  our  annual  short  courses  or  at  the 
four-5^ear  courses  offered  by  the  College  of  Engineering. 


The  Problems  To  Be  Studied 

By  Thomas  H.  MacDonald 

Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Public  Roads 

There  is  a  term  frequently  used  at  such  meetings  as  this  that  I  should 
like  to  see  stricken  out  of  our  vocabularies  and  erased  from  every  program. 
I  refer  to  the  hackneyed  term  "good  roads."  It  has  been  used  so  long  and 
so  questionably  in  connection  with  an  outgrown  propaganda  that  it  no  longer 
stands  for  our  ideas  of  the  goal  toward  which  we  are  now  working.  What 
we  are  interested  in  now  is  not  "good  roads"  or  "better  roads"  but  better 
transportation,  which  involves  not  roads  only  but  vehicles  as  well,  and  the 
proper  relation  of  the  vehicle  to  the  road. 

We  are  meeting  here  in  conference  under  the  auspices  of  the  University 
of  Tennessee  in  order  that  we  may  discuss  some  of  the  problems  that  lie 
before  us  in  preparing  the  way  for  better  transportation;  and  that  we  may 
decide  upon  methods  and  means  by  which  young  men  who  are  now  studying 
in  the  engineering  courses  of  the  universities  may  be  brought  up  in  the 
knowledge  of  these  problems. 

The  University  is  cooperating  in  this  movement  with  the  Highway 
Education  Board.  The  Board,  formerly  known  as  the  Highway  and  Highway 
Transport  Education  Committee,  and  gathered  together  as  the  result  of  a 
conference  held  in  Washington  over  a  year  ago,  is  made  up  of  representatives 
of  government  departments  and  private  industry.  On  it  are  represented  the 
War  Department,  the  Agricultural  Department  through  the  Bureau  of 
Public  Roads,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Engineering  Education,  the  Rubber  Association  of  America  and  the  National 
Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce.  As  you  will  see,  it  combines  in  its 
membership  the  producers  of  vehicles,  the  builders  and  the  users  of  roads, 
and  the  educators  upon  whom  must  fall  the  task  of  training  those  who  are 
to  work  for  the  development  of  the  new  idea  of  highway  transport  which 
differs  from  the  old  "good  roads"  propaganda  as  day  from  night. 

Roads  without  Rhyme  or  Reason 

To  the  "good  roads"  enthusiast  the  good  road  was  the  end  to  be  sought — 
a  thing  to  be  possessed  for  itself  alone — something  in  which  the  community 
could  properly  take  pride,  as  in  a  new  monument  for  the  courthouse  square. 
His  demand  was  for  the  best  road  obtainable,  usually  with  total  disregard 
for  the  character  or  volume  of  the  traffic  to  be  accommodated.  Largely 
at  his  behest  we  have  begun  upon  the  development  of  our  highways  without 
system  and  without  method.  Without  rhyme  or  reason  we  have  built  a  piece 
of  good  road  here,  another  there,  each  as  they  were  demanded  by  this  or 
that  community  acting  upon  the  urge  of  its  "good  roads"  enthusiasts. 

These  roads  have  been  built  for  the  locality  rather  than  for  the  state  or 
nation.     In   general   they    are   not   connected   with   each   other,    and,   in   some 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  7 

instances,  their  location  is  so  lacking  in  elements  of  economy  as  to  warrant  no 
connection  with  the  highway  systems  which  are  now  being  developed. 

With  such  a  conception  of  the  purpose  of  roads  our  present  ideas  of 
highway  transportation  have  no  relation.  Within  our  broader  view  there 
lies  a  national  system  of  connected  roads,  each  road  a  link  in  the  national 
chain,  bearing  its  due  proportion  of  interstate  traffic,  yet  each  a  local  road 
as  well,  serving  with  well-placed  lateral  roads  to  distribute  and  collect  the 
traffic  of  the  rural  sections.  Each  road  in  our  projected  system  must  be 
designed  for  the  particular  traffic  it  will  be  called  upon  to  carry.  There  must 
be  no  superfluous  expenditure  for  roads  beyond  the  economic  requirements  of 
the  vehicles  that  will  use  them,  yet  the  roads  built  must  be  fully  adequate  if 
we  would  avoid  waste  and  deterioration. 

Four  Lines  of  Attack 

It  has  been  given  to  me  to  outline — not  to  solve — the  problems  we  con- 
front in  building  such  a  system  and  providing  for  highway  transportation  in 
this  higher  sense.  To  outline  them  is  not  a  difficult  matter;  to  solve  them 
is  a  task  for  many  men  and  long,  unselfish  labor.  Only  now,  I  feel,  are 
we  approaching  the  study  of  these  problems  in  the  proper  manner. 

The  lines  along  which  we  are  attacking  them  are  as  follows :  ( i )  Highway 
Economics;  (2)  Highway  Engineering;  (3)  Automotive  Engineering;  (4) 
Highway  Transport. 

I  place  first  the  line  of  highway  economics  because  it  is  along  that  line 
that  we  propose  to  find  out  why  and  for  what  purpose  we  should  build  the 
roads;  in  a  general  way,  where  they  should  be;  and  how  we  may  best  pay 
for  them.  It  is  in  this  first  line  of  attack  that  Prof.  N.  W.  Dougherty, 
of  the  University  of  Tennessee,  is  working.  We  have  made  arrangements 
with  him  to  study  the  use  of  the  roads  in  Tennessee;  to  show  the  use  you 
are  now  making  of  your  highways,  the  probable  effect  of  improved  roads 
on  the  distribution  of  traffic,  and  the  value  of  such  improved  roads  as  a 
means  of  bettering  transportation  conditions  in  the  state.  I  am  hopeful 
that  he  will  be  able  to  continue  his  studies  until  he  has  covered  all  the 
counties  of  the  state,  for  I  know  of  no  way  in  which  he  can  render  better 
or  more  important  service  to  the  state.  He  has  had  splendid  cooperation  from 
every  one,  and  in  a  little  while,  if  his  work  is  continued,  he  should  be  able 
to  say  to  the  state:  "This  is  the  service  our  highways  are  giving  us  now, 
and  these  are  the  developments  of  service  that  improved  highways  can  bring 
to   us." 

Along  the  second  line — that  of  highway  engineering — we  are  studying  the 
design  of  roads  from  the  technical  standpoint  and  endeavoring  to  develop 
better  methods  of  construction,  and  especially  of  maintenance.  In  order 
to  improve  our  designs  we  are  going  into  a  study  of  subsoils  and  foundations 
and  wearing  surfaces,  the  effect  of  climate,  drainage  and  loading;  and  we  are 
finding  some  things  that  will,  I  believe,  surprise  most  people.  It  is  the  popular 
belief,  I  am  sure,  that  our  highway  surfaces  are  absolutely  inert  and  stationary 
and  that  they  remain  in  one  place  and  one  position  until  they  are  worn  out. 
That  is   not   correct,   we   find.     For    example,    take    a   concrete   road;   it   is 


8  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

constantly  moving;  back  and  forth  lengthwise,  as  seasons  change,  and 
expansion  gives  way  to  contraction,  and  vice  versa ;  and  up  and  down  each  day. 
During  the  day  the  edges  of  the  slabs  curl  down  as  the  upper  surface 
expands  under  the  influence  of  mounting  temperature;  at  night  they  curl  up 
when  the  surface  cools  and  contracts.  We  have  measured  displacements  of 
the  slab  as  great  as  half  an  inch  from  the  subgrade.  Should  a  heavily  loaded 
truck  come  along  at  such  times  it  would  find  the  road  in  the  air  with 
absolutely  no  subgrade  support,  and  it  is  easy  to  imagine  what  would  happen. 

Knowledge  Imperative  before  Investment 

In  our  studies  to  determine  how  thick  we  shall  make  our  road  surfaces 
and  their  foundations  we  are  investigating  the  effect  of  the  impact  of  motor 
trucks.  Due  to  irregularities  in  the  surface  of  the  roads,  it  is  not  unusual 
for  a  heavily  loaded  truck  to  fall  with  a  thud  upon  the  road  surface  from 
a  height  of  a  quarter  or  even  half  an  inch.  At  such  times  the  blow  delivered 
to  the  road  is  equivalent  to  many  times  the  weight  of  the  truck  and  load. 
We  have  measured  blows  equivalent  to  20  tons  and  more,  yet  people  wonder 
why  our  roads  break  down. 

We  must  discover  such  facts  as  these  before  we  invest  our  money,  because 
it  is  impossible  to  build  roads  that  will  hold  up  properly  unless  we  find  out 
exactly  what  conditions  we  must  build  them  for — ^just  as  a  tailor  must  measure 
you  before  he  can  cut  the  cloth. 

Along  the  line  of  automotive  engineering  are  those  problems  of  size  and 
distribution  of  the  load,  economic  truck  capacity,  design  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  truck  for  economy  in  operation,  etc.  As  related  to  the  roads  there 
is  the  study  of  the  value  and  effect  of  various  kinds  of  tires  in  relieving 
and  cushioning  the  blows  of  impact,  and  the  possibility  of  better  distribution 
of  the  weight  of  the  load  to  the  road.  I  am  trying  to  convince  my  automobile 
friends  that  we  have  found  trucks  so  designed  that  we  get  the  equivalent 
of  no  per  cent  of  the  carried  load  under  the  two  rear  wheels  alone.  Such 
a  concentration  of  load  is,  of  course,  extremely  difficult  to  cope  with,  and 
one  phase  of  our  study  aims  to  relieve  this  condition  by  a  more  uniform 
distribution  to  four  or  six  wheels. 

Along  the  fourth  line,  that  of  highway  transport,  lie  the  broad  problems 
involved  in  the  development  of  an  economic  system  of  roads  and  the  use  and 
regulation  of  such  a  system  to  supplement  the  other  transportation  systems 
and  relieve  the  dangerous  situation  into  which  we  have  been  permitted  to 
drift  by  failure  of  our  transport  to  keep  pace  with  our  production. 

I  do  not  know  of  any  state  in  the  Union  that  will  be  helped  more  by 
the  development  of  a  system  of  primary  and  feeder  roads  than  the  State  of 
Tennessee.  If  you  will  tie  this  whole  state  together,  from  the  east  to  the 
west,  and  from  the  north  to  the  south,  with  primary  roads,  joined  to  feeder 
roads,  there  will  come  about  a  development  of  your  state  that  cannot  be 
brought  about  in  any  other  way. 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  in 
Typical  Counties  of  Tennessee 

N.  W.  Dougherty^  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering^ 
University  of  Tennessee 

In  anticipation  of  the  conference,  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Tennessee,  the  Tennessee  Highway  Department  and  a  number  of 
Tennessee  counties  undertook  a  survey  during  the  summer  months.  Before 
undertaking  to  accumulate  field  data  a  general  outline  of  highway  economics 
and  highway  transport  was  developed.  From  the  very  beginning  of  the 
survey  it  was  apparent  that  information  could  not  be  obtained  on  all  phases 
of  the  outline.  Some  of  the  divisions — the  materials  survey,  for  example — 
will  require  much  time  and  effort  before  complete  results  may  be  obtained. 

Enough  work,  however,  was  accomplished  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility 
of  the  method  and  to  point  the  way  to  a  more  complete  survey  in  the  future. 
I  shall  undertake  to  give  you  an  outline  of  the  work  and  some  of  the  results 
already  obtained. 

Outline 

/.  Highway  Evaluation — Existing  System. 

1.  Type  and  Condition  of  Surface. 

a.  Kind  of  surface — macadam,  gravel,  concrete,  etc. 

b.  Classification  of  type  according  to  condition. 

c.  Cost  of  road — time  constructed,  etc. 

2.  Kind  of  Soil. 

a.  Classification  of  soils  for  subgrade, 

b.  Soils  for  cuts  and  embankments. 

3.  Major  Topographic  Features. 

a.  Grades    and    alignment    relation    to    construction    costs    and 

probable  future  operation. 

b.  Drainage  conditions.     Is  drainage  adequate? 

c.  Bridges — type,  strength,  when  built. 

d.  Width  of  traveled  way. 

e.  Climatic  conditions. 
//.  Maintenance. 

1.  Systems  Used. 

2.  Costs  of  Several  Selected  Roads. 

3.  Method  of  Financing. 

4.  Degree  of  Success  Considering  System  and  Traffic. 
///.  Service  Road  is  Giving  or  May  Give. 

I.  Traffic  Counts. 

a.  Plan  and  period  of  census. 
Selection  of  census  points. 
Accumulate  previous  data  for  points  taken. 


10  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

Classification  of  vehicles. 
Actual  count. 

b.  Study  of  traffic  data. 
Character  of  traffic. 

Local,    farm-to-market,   pleasure,   city-to-farm. 

Through,  as  interurban  or  inter-state. 

Truck,  interurban,  farm-to-market,  market-to-farm. 

Length  of  haul. 

Tonnage  of  each  class  of  traffic. 

Value  of  produce  hauled. 

c.  Classification  of  truck  tires. 
Solid,  width. 
Pneumatic. 

2.  Estimate  of  Present  and  Future  Traffic. 

a.  Determine  tributary  land  areas. 
Population  on  the  areas. 
Products  of  the  areas. 

Local    consumption. 
Produce  hauled  to  market. 

b.  Intercity   traffic. 

Population  centers  and  distance  apart. 

Probable  truck  haulage  considering  type  of  haulage. 

c.  Rural  truck  haulage. 

Point  of  origin,  amount  of  haul,  cost. 

3.  Enhancement  of  Property  Values. 

a.  Zone  of  influence. 

b.  Rise  and  fall  in  values,  adjacent,  remote. 

c.  Increase   in   assessable   property  giving  income  to   state    and 

county. 
IV.  Study  of  Finances. 

1.  Financial  Status  of  County  as  Unit. 

a.  Income  of  county. 

Registration  of   automobiles. 
Trucks,    autos,    motorcycles. 
Classification  as  to  city  and  rural  districts. 
Assessed  value   of   property. 
Tax  rate  for  roads,  special  levies. 
'  b.  Bonded  indebtedness. 

Type  and  life  of  bonds. 
Roads  on  which  money  was  spent. 
Life   as  compared  with  life  of  bonds. 
Sinking  funds,   annuities,   etc. 
c.  Money   available. 

For   road  construction. 
For  road  maintenance. 

2.  Methods  of  Financing  Construction. 

a.  Federal  aid. 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  11 

b.  State  aid. 

c.  County  aid. 

-  d.  Bond  issues  by  county  or  state. 
V.  Study  of  Local  Materials. 

1.  Location   and   Classification. 

a.  Old   materials. 

b.  New  materials. 

2.  Quality  and  Quantity. 

a.  Determine   by   survey    and    tests. 
VL  Selection  of  Economic  System  for  County. 

1.  Choose  leading  roads  from  service  they  give  or  may  give. 

2.  Classify    secondary    and    tertiary    systems,    determining    order    of 

•  improvement  and   reasonable   amount  to   spend. 

3.  Choose  type  of  surface  considering  traffic  and  local  material  along 

with    ability   to   finance  project. 

4.  Try,  if  possible,  to  let  the  burden  come  where  the  benefit  accrues. 
From  the  very  beginning  it  was  obvious  that  field  data  could  not  be  taken 

in  all  counties  of  the  state.  A  choice  of  counties  was  so  made  that  proper 
facilities  for  study  would  be  offered,  and  at  the  same  time  the  data  taken 
would  be  typical  of  other  counties  of  the  state.  Davidson  County  is  the 
capital  county  and  has  one  of  the  best  developed  county  highway  systems 
of  the  state.  The  configuration  of  the  roads  is  radial,  and  this,  too,  is 
typical  of  such  counties  as  Knox,  Hamilton,  Shelby  and  Madison. 

Williamson  County  is  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  counties  of  Middle 
Tennessee.  The  county  has  a  large  mileage  of  highways  to  be  improved.  It 
also  has  about  85  miles  of  toll  roads  and  about  the  same  mileage  of  improved 
gravel  roads. 

Maury  County  has  recently  purchased  the  toll  roads,  making  them  public 
property.  The  county  is  also  entering  upon  an  improvement  program  of 
high  class  road  surfaces. 

Cumberland  County  is  located  on  the  Cumberland  Plateau,  is  sparsely 
populated,  and  has  a  low  taxable  wealth.  The  road  problem  of  this  county 
is  typical  of  a  number  of  sparsely  populated  counties. 

In  addition  to  taking  field  data  in  these  counties,  traffic  counts  were 
made  in  Sullivan,  Hawkins,  Grainger,  Knox,  Loudon,  McMinn  and  Bradley 
Counties.  In  these  latter  counties  the  count  was  made  simultaneously  over 
190  miles  of  road.  The  effort  was  to  discover  variations  in  traffic  at  stations 
along  one  of  the  leading  roads  of  the  state. 

Description  of  Survey 

I.  Highway  Evaluation. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  make  a  survey  of  the  highways  in  as  much 
detail  as  is  being  made  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  for  the 
railways.  Approximate  data,  however,  should  be  of  very  great  value  in  a 
highway  transport  survey.  After  inspecting  a  number  of  roads  the  following 
classification  of  road  surfaces  was  made,  and  by  inspection  the  several  road 
surfaces  of  each  county  were  placed  in  their  respective  classes. 


12 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 


Macadam  with  Surface  Treatment 
I.  Surface    smooth    and    application    in    good    condition.     Either    recent 

application  or  surface  in  such  condition  that  two  or  more  years  of  life  may 

be  expected. 

2.  Surface  in  wavy  condition  so  that  the  speed  of  vehicles  is  limited  to 

avoid  inconvenience  to  travel;  surface  sufficiently  worn  to  require  patrol  to 


DAVIDSON  COUNTY 

IMPRDVtD    RDAOS 

legend;- 


Fig.  I. 


keep  in  fair  condition;  edge  torn,  requiring  patching  to  avoid  inconvenience 
to  traffic  when  vehicles  are  passing  each  other. 

3.  Surface  in  such  condition  that  scarifying  and  reshaping  is  necessary 
before  application  of  new  treatment. 

{Note:  Any  surface  in  bad  condition  due  to  pot  holes,  ruts,  raveling,  etc., 
is  to  be  classified  with  proper  macadam  class.) 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  13 

Macadam  Surfaces 

1.  Road  surface  in  good  condition,  to  proper  crown  and  width.  Surface 
ready  for  carpet  treatment  without  additional  work  except  possibly  brooming 
before  carpet  is  applied. 

2.  Surface  containing  small  depressions  and  a  small  amount  of  loose  stone. 
Patching  and  possibly  rolling  needed  before  carpet  can  be  applied. 

3.  Surface  in  such  state  of  repair  that  it  must  be  scarified  and  reshaped 
before  treatment  may  be  applied.  Materials  in  place  may  be  used  with  a 
small  amount  of  additional  material. 

4.  Surface  thin  and  of  little  value.     Practically  all  of  new  surface  to  be 


PAV\D50li *-t- WILUAn60H  *^--    H^URY- 

ill       i      i 

i 


^tt"^^^ 


jum 


>yv'^t,<^t>^?gl5^ 


^ 


\0  EO  30  40  50  GO  10 

LCGCLMO: 

Class  r-^--=i      t2AlLR0AD 

GEAS)£  ^^^ — ---~     0YERPA55 

Stbeam         ^" — ^^-^     Underpass 


Fig.  2. 

of  new  material.     Newly  graded  subgrade  for  application  of  road  metal  to  be 
placed  in  this  class. 

5.  Roads  of  bad  alignment,  excessive  grades  or  insufficient  width  requiring 
such  changes  that  all  previous  material  will  be  lost. 

Gravel  Surfaces 

1.  Surfaces  in  good  condition;  drainage  open,   road  to  proper  width  and 
crown. 

2.  Roads  properly  graded   and  which   have   been   surfaced   but   need   new 
material  and  reshaping. 

3.  Graded  roads  which  are  ready  for  surfacing. 

4.  Roads    requiring    changes    in    alignment,    grade    and    width;    or    roads 


14 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 


where  the  drainage  structures  are  bad  and  which  will  require  large  expend- 
itures to  make  them  passable  with  modern  traffic. 

Fig.  I,  for  Davidson  County,  illustrates  the  method  of  tabulating  classifica- 

Traffic  Count 


STATION ROAD. 

FnOM    6:00 M.   TO    6:00 M.  


-1®2 CONDITION    OF    RO^ 


KIND  or 

VtHICLK 

1— 

OlHfC- 
TION 

COO  TO    1:00 

........ 

—     1    • 

z^ 

TOTALS 

AUTOS 

1 

l~l 

_ 

1 

,              1 

1 

1     1 

, 

l~ 

1              1 

1 

1 

1 

1 — 

TRUCKS  . 

l~ 

(~ 

1      1 

1 

1~ 

1 

1 

_ 

1 — 1 

1 

1 

1 

,-1 

_! 

1     1 

i 

1— 

1^ 

1 

1                   1 

i — i             1 — 1 

1 

i 

1 

f~1 

1 

1 

1 



1 

, —  1 

1 

1 — 1 

1          ! 

1 

II 

WEATHER 

1                                                1                                                1 
1                                               1                                                1 

Fig.  3. 


Road.... 
Weather. 


Station . 
Date . . . 


....  County. 

Condition  of  Road . 


License 
No. 


Time 


No.  of 
psngrs. 


Direction 


In       Out 


Distance 


Capacity- 


Width  of  tires 


Front     Rear 


Make 


Kind  of 
vehicle 


Residence 
of  owner 


Fig.  4.. 


tion  data.  Fig.  2  also  illustrates  a  method  which  may  be  used  for  giving 
more  detailed  information.  By  such  a  survey  an  approximate  estimate  may 
be  made  of  the  value  of  the  existing  system,  and  an  estimate  may  be  made  of 
the  cost  of  improving  such  a  system  to  meet  the  present  and  future  traffic  needs. 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 


15 


Kind  of  Soil 

The  only  information  taken  on  kinds  of  soil  is  that  found  in  reports  of  the 
Geological  Survey  on  soils  of  the  counties  studied.  This  information  is  more 
general  than  is  desirable  for  highway  purposes,  though  of  considerable  value  in 
classifying  the  general  types  of  soil. 


Fig  5. 

Maintenance 

In  all  the  counties  studied,  the  major  part  of  maintenance  was  carried  on 
by  the  gang  system,  though  in  Davidson  County  the  gang  system  is  supplemented 
by  patrolmen.  In  all  counties  studied,  the  gang  system  must  be  employed. 
The  road  surfaces  are  in  such  a  state  of  repair  that  it  would  be  impossible 
for  a  patrolman  to  properly  improve  and  keep  the  surfaces  in  good  condition. 
This  is  as  true  of  Davidson  County  as  any  other  county.     Even  though  this 


16  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

county  has  more  than  300  miles  of  hard  surface  roads,  still  there  are  over 
600  miles  of  district  roads  which  must  be  improved  before  a  patrolman 
can  properly  maintain  them.  In  all  the  counties  studied,  the  county  convicts 
w^ere  used  for  w^ork  on  the  roads. 

The  Traffic 

Roads  are  built  to  serve  the  traffic.  The  first  measure  of  service,  therefore, 
is  in  the  traffic  w^hich  is  going  over  the  road,  and  which  may  go  over  the  road 
during  its  useful  life.  To  discover  the  traffic  in  the  counties,  counters  were 
placed  at  a  large  number  of  stations  on  the  important  roads.  In  Davidson 
County  the  counting  extended  over  a  four  day  period.  In  the  other  counties 
the  count  was  taken  for  one  day  only.  The  traffic  blank  used  in  Davidson 
County  is  shown  by  Fig.  3.  In  the  other  counties  the  plan  was  changed 
to  give  more  detailed  information.     Fig.  4  shows  this  latter  form  of  blank. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  traffic  data  taken  in  Davidson  County.  The  width  of 
line  is  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  traffic  and  the  numbers  set  opposite 
the  traffic  stations  give  the  average  daily  count  for  the  year.  The  average 
daily  count  was  obtained  by  comparing  twelve-hour  counts  with  twenty-four- 
hour  counts  and  then  comparing  averages  for  August  with  the  average  for 
the  year. 

In  addition  to  counting  traffic,  weighing  stations  were  established  in 
Nashville  and  Columbia.  A  large  number  of  all  types  of  vehicles  were 
weighed,  both  loaded  and  empty.  Traffic  data  were  available  in  Davidson 
County  at  eleven  stations  taken  in  19 16.  The  same  stations  were  used  in 
1921.  This  gave  an  opportunity  to  compare  values  and  note  the  increase  of 
traffic.  It  was  found  that  the  total  volume  of  traffic  had  increased  2.91 
times,  while  the  motor-drawn  traffic  had  increased  5.2  times.  From  the 
traffic  data  taken,  estimates  may  be  made  of  the  total  volume  of  traffic  in 
the  counties.     These  estimates  will  be  given  for  Davidson  and  Maury. 

Davidson  County 

Main   Pikes    84,660  vehicle- miles  per   day 

District    Roads    14,600  miles  per  day 

Total     99,260  miles  per  day 

Maury   County 

Main  Pikes    23,000  vehicle-miles  per  day 

District  Roads   12,500  miles  per  day 

Total   35,500  miles  per  day 

In  Davidson  County  83.3  per  cent  of  the  traffic  is  motor  drawn,  and  of 
the  motor  traffic  the  counts  showed  that  70  per  cent  of  it  is  from  city- 
owned  cars. 


99260  X  .833  X  .70  =  57>820 
99260  X  .833  X  .30  =  24,780 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 


17 


The    registration    data   show    10,250   cars    in    the    city    and    1,750   cars   in 
the  country. 

Miles  per  vehicle  per  year: 

365 

City— 57,820  X =  2,070 


Rural — 24,780  X 


10250 
365 

1750 


5,160 


It  is  probable  that  no  more  than  half  the  mileage  of  the  city-owned  cars 
is  on  the  country  roads. 

In  Maury  County  67.5  per  cent  of  the  traffic  is  motor  drawn,  making  the 


Fig.  6. 

total  daily  motor-drawn  traffic  24,000  vehicle-miles.  There  are  1,836  vehicles 
registered  in  the  county,  making  an  average  annual  mileage  of  4,771. 

The  results  obtained  in  this  way  seem  reasonable,  though  probably  some- 
what low.  A  questionnaire  in  Knox  County  gave  the  average  annual  mileage 
for  autos  above  6,000  miles.  It  will  be  noted  in  the  above  computation 
that  the  assumption  is  made  that  there  is  as  much  foreign  travel  by  the 
cars  in  the  county  as  there  is  county  travel  by  foreign  cars.  In  some  cases 
this  would  be  far  from  the  truth,  but  in  the  two  counties  listed  the  assump- 
tion seems  reasonable. 

Knowing  the  total  travel  in  a  county  and  knowing  the  total  expenditure 
per  year,  it  is  very  easy  to  compute  the  average  cost  per  vehicle-mile.  In 
Davidson  County  the  annual  expenditure  is  approximately  $400,000,  and  in 
Maury  County  it  is  $47,400,  making  the  vehicle-mile  cost  in  the  two  counties, 
1. 104  and  0.365  cents,  respectively.     These  values  give  no  information  as  to 


18  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

the  condition  of  the  county  highway  system,  but  they  do  give  an  indication 
as  to  excess  or  deficiency  In  funds  available  for  the  traffic  to  be  accommo- 
dated. The  cost  per  vehicle-mile  ranges  from  0.2  cent  to  8  or  10  cents, 
depending  upon  the  type  of  surface,  the  traffic  and  the  maintenance  methods. 
Fig.  6  Illustrates  the  variation  along  the  roads  from  Edenwold,  in  Davidson 
County,  to  Mt.  Pleasant,  In  Maury  County. 

Enhancement  of  Property  Values 

It  Is  generally  accepted  as  true  that  property  values  will  increase  with 
the  Improvement  of  highways.  A  number  of  studies  have  been  made  which 
reach  this  conclusion.  In  Davidson  County  we  compared  two  areas,  one 
being  served  by  oiled  macadam  roads,  and  the  other  by  earth  roads  in  not 
very  good  condition.  We  found  that  all  persons  interviewed  believed  that 
their  property  had  Increased  or  would  increase  with  the  Improvement  of 
the  road  surfaces.  In  the  territory  served  by  Improved  roads  the  value  of 
the  land  was  estimated  to  be  at  least  $50  more  per  acre  than  In  the  territory 
served  by  the  earth  roads.  Part  of  this  increase  in  value  may  be  due  to 
density  of  population  and  proximity  to  Nashville.  From  the  data  taken, 
it  seems  reasonable  to  assume  that  improvement  In  highways  caused  the 
land  to  Increase  from  $20  to  $25  per  acre. 

A  rather  detailed  study  made  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Allred  in  Williamson  County 
caused  him  to  conclude  that  Williamson  County  land  increased  about  $20 
per  acre  with  the  improvement  of  the  roads.  In  some  of  the  districts  of 
Williamson  County  the  land  values  will  not  increase  as  much  as  $20.  Should 
the  value  so  increase,  property  values  would  more  than  double.  Other 
factors  than  highway  Improvement  enter  into  the  enhancement  of  property 
values.  Two  other  'factors  which  certainly  enter  are  the  Intensity  of  popula- 
tion and  production  per  acre. 

Study  of  Finances 

It  Is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  obtain  the  financial  status  of  the 
counties.  The  records  In  the  trustee's  office  show  the  taxes  collected  by 
districts  and  the  resources  of  the  counties  by  districts.  A  detailed  study 
of  such  tax  data  discloses  very  Interesting  results.  For  example,  the  assessed 
value  of  property  In  Davidson  County  ranges  from  $37.50  to  $332  per  acre. 
In  Williamson  County  the  range  is  from  $6  to  $193  per  acre.  The  road 
tax  per  mile  of  road  in  Davidson  County  ranges  from  $47.35  to  $563.10. 
In  Williamson  County  the  range  is  from  $3-37  to  $283.  It  is  thus  seen 
that  the  type  of  service  that  the  taxes  will  purchase  is  quite  variable.  None 
of  the  counties  studied  had  an  excessive  bonded  Indebtedness.  Cumberland 
County,  with  a  wealth  of  $5,634,000,  has  the  highest  percentage  of  indebtedness, 
the  percentage  being  4.56.  The  other  counties  have  a  bonded  indebtedness  of 
less  than   1.5  per  cent. 

Local  Materials  Should  Be  Sought 

There  should  be  a  greater  use  of  local  materials  in  highway  building. 
Materials  always  comprise  a  large  part  of  construction  cost.     By  using  local 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  19 

materials,  large  economies  will  often  result.  The  County  Highway  Depart- 
ments and  the  State  Highway  Department  could  realize  a  large  saving  by 
properly  prospecting  and  testing  local  material  supplies  before  contracts  are  let. 

Davidson,  Williamson  and  Maury  Counties  have  an  abundance  of  gravel 
and  limestone.  Cumberland  County  has  a  large  deposit  of  limestone  in  one 
section  of  the  county.  In  other  sections  of  the  county  there  is  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  clay  which  may  be  used  for  road  building. 

In  this  survey  no  effort  was  made  to  discover  new  supplies  or  develop 
old  supplies.  The  task  of  such  a  survey  is  a  large  one  and  should  be  under- 
taken by  proper  county  and  state  agencies. 

Conclusions 

At  this  time  we  have  not  been  able  to  digest  all  the  data  taken,  but  the 
following  conclusions  seem  to  be  justified   from  the  study: 

1.  The  method  as  outlined  is  feasible  and  information  may  be  obtained 
without  excessive  cost. 

2.  Approximate  data  on  highway  evaluation  will  be  useful  in  determining 
operating  costs  and  will  also  show  whether  the  road  system  in  the  county  is 
standing  still,  being  improved  or  going  backward.  This  information  may  also 
be  used  in  determining  the  cost  of  the  needed  road  system. 

3.  The  traffic  blank,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  does  not  give  enough  information. 

4.  On  roads  where  the  traffic  is  less  than  700  vehicles  per  day  one  counter 
may  get  information  called  for  on  blank  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

5.  By  counting  at  several  stations  on  the  main  roads  a  close  approxima- 
tion to  the  total  volume  of  traffic  may  be  made. 

6.  By  weighing  the  vehicles  an  approximate  total  tonnage  may  be  obtained 
and  valuable  information  as  to  over-loading  will  result. 

7.  Knowing  the  traffic  and  the  expenditures,  approximate  operating  costs 
will  result. 

8.  Local  needs,  in  the  main,  determine  what  the  expenditures  should  be. 

9.  On  the  main  roads  the  traffic  will  justify  high-class  surfaces. 

10.  The  taxes  now  collected  are  not  enough  to  pay  for  hard  surfaces  on 
more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  roads  in  the  county  systems. 

Note:  A  more  complete  discussion  of  the  survey  is  given  in  Bulletin  I, 
University  of  Tennessee  Engineering  Experiment  Station. 


The  Program  of  the  Highway  Education  Board 

By  Dr.  Walton  C.  John^  Secretary  of  the  Highway  Education  Board 

Before  going  into  the  details  of  the  program  of  the  Board  it  may  be  well 
to  go  back  and  consider  the  condition  of  transportation  just  before  the  World 
War.  At  that  time  the  automobile  was  just  commencing  to  be  recognized 
as  a  worthy  instrument  for  the  transportation  of  passengers.  It  had  scarcely 
commenced  to  enter  the  field  of  transportation  of  merchandise.  Our  high- 
ways, for  the  most  part,  were  relatively  unimproved.  Only  in  our  larger 
cities  and  environs  were  there  high-grade  pavements  to  any  extent. 

With  the  coming  of  the  great  World  War,  new  and  constant  demands 
were  made  upon  the  transportation  facilities  of  the  country,  especially  the 
railroads.  When  the  United  States  finally  entered  the  war  it  was  found 
impossible  to  maintain  the  old  methods  of  transportation.  This  gave  oppor- 
tunity to  the  motor  truck,  which  since  has  been  rapidly  winning  its  way  to 
favor.  Just  as  Napoleon  said:  "An  armv  moves  on  its  belly,"  it  might 
equally  well  be  said  that  the  American  Army  and  the  armies  of  our  allies 
were  moved  on  the  motor  truck. 

Looking  back  three  or  four  years  we  can  recall  a  vivid  impression  of 
great  convoys  of  trucks  carrying  troops  and  equipment  to  the  centers  for 
transportation  to  Europe.  What  was  the  result?  Our  roads,  which  had  not 
been  designed  for  the  heavy  traffic  imposed  upon  them  with  this  new  and 
heavy  unit  of  transportation,  were  broken  up,  as  it  were,  over  night.  Some 
of  them  were  pulverized  and  blown  away  in  dust,  but  the  truck  had  vindi- 
cated itself  as  a  highly  efficient  instrument  for  transportation  in  the  time  of 
war,  and  in  view  of  the  lack  of  railroad  facilities  proved  itself  of  equal 
value  as  an  instrument  of  peace.  Thus  the  great  need  for  improved  roads 
was  created  and  out  of  this  great  need  grew  the  Federal  aid  plans  for  high- 
way building  on  a  scale  more  prodigious  than  at  any  other  time  during  the 
world's  history.  The  amount  of  funds  which  have  become  available  through 
Federal  aid  and  the  corresponding  state  and  local  aid  will,  including  the  next 
five  years,  run  into  billions  of  dollars,  comparable  with  the  amount  of  the 
National  Debt  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  We  can,  therefore,  imagine 
the  responsibility  laid  upon  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  and  the 
State  Highway  Departments  regarding  the  right  and  economic  expenditure 
of  these  vast  sums  of  money. 

Board  Called  Into  Being 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  money  was  appropriated,  it  was  impossible 
to  find  a  sufficient  number  of  trained  engineers  capable  of  constructing  im- 
proved highways  of  such  a  character  as  would  stand  up  under  the  continual 
grind  of  automobiles  and  motor  trucks.  Out  of  this  demand  for  trained 
engineers  grew  the  first  call  for  the  creation  of  an  organization  which  has 
developed  into  the  Highway  and  Highway  Transport  Education  Committee, 
now  the  Highway  Education  Board.    The  great  automotive  and  rubber  indus- 

20 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  21 

tries  find  themselves  likewise  perplexed  with  the  new  economic  situation,  and 
lacking  sound  data  regarding  the  transportation  of  goods  over  the  highways 
and  the  corresponding  relation  of  highway  transport  to  other  forms  of 
transportation.  These,  with  other  interests,  joined  in  calling  upon  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  to  summon  a  National  Conference  on 
Education  for  Highway  Engineering  and  Highway  Transport.  This  was 
held  in  Washington,  May  14  and  15,  1920,  and  was  well  attended  by  leading 
highway  engineers,  economists,  leaders  in  the  automotive  and  rubber  industry, 
and  a  great  many  others  interested  in  transportation  problems. 

After  a  careful  study  it  was  voted  that  the  Commissioner  of  Education 
be  invited  to  form  a  permanent  committee  to  continue  the  study  of  the 
coordination  of  the  many  problems  involved  in  highway  engineering  and 
highway  transport,  and  to  encourage  proper  research;  to  lay  the  foundation 
for  college  courses  of  study  in  the  new  field  of  highway  transport,  and  to 
hold  such  regional  conferences  as  might  seem  best  in  the  several  states.  The 
Commissioner  of  Education,  who  was  named  chairman  of  the  committee, 
appointed  the  following  as  his  associates:  Thomas  H.  MacDonald,  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  Department  of  Agriculture;  Col.  Mason 
L.  Patrick,  Engineering  Corps,  U.  S.  A.,  War  Department  (since  Colonel 
Patrick's  elevation  to  the  Major  Generalship,  in  charge  of  the  Air  Forces 
of  the  United  States,  he  has  been  succeeded  by  Col.  F.  C.  Boggs)  ;  Roy  D. 
Chapin,  President  of  the  Hudson  Motor  Car  Company  and  Vice-President 
of  the  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce;  Harvey  S.  Firestone, 
President  of  the  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Company  and  Representative 
of  the  Rubber  Association  of  America;  W.  S.  Keller,  President  of  the  Amer- 
ican Association  of  State  Highway  Officials;  Dr.  F.  L.  Bishop,  Dean  of  the 
School  of  Engineering  of  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  and  Secretary  of  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education.  During  the  past  year 
C.  J.  Tilden,  Professor  of  Engineering  Mechanics,  Yale  University,  was 
Director  of  the  Committee. 

Interest  Among  Youth  Stimulated 

The  Board  in  harmony  with  the  policies  outlined  at  the  general  meeting, 
has  not  only  encouraged  research  in  highway  engineering  and  highway 
transport  in  our  universities  and  colleges,  but  it  has  attempted  to  encourage 
the  youth  in  the  high  schools,  who  are  to  be  our  coming  voters  on  the  question 
of  good  roads,  to  become  acquainted  with  these  problems.  This  has  been 
done  by  the  means  of  annual  National  Essay  Contests  on  the  subjects  per- 
taining to  good  roads  and  highway  transport  for  students  of  high-school  grade. 
Due  to  the  generosity  of  Mr.  Firestone,  the  winner  of  the  national  prize 
receives  a  $4,000  university  scholarship,  the  last  year's  contest  having  been 
won  by  Miss  Garland  Johnson,  of  Bridgeport,  W.  Va.,  a  14-year-old  high- 
school  junior.  Miss  Johnson's  prize-winning  essay  was  published  in  a  recent 
issue  of  Collier's  Weekly.  In  order  to  overcome  the  dangers  which  beset 
our  children  on  the  highways  the  Board  as  a  result  of  the  generosity  of  the 
National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  been  able  to  offer  to  the 
children  of  the  graded  schools,   14  years  of  age  and  under,   about  500  cash 


22  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

prizes  and  medals  for  the  best  essays  on  highway  safety.  And  to  further 
stimulate  this  cause,  $1,500  in  prizes  has  been  offered  to  elementary  school 
teachers  for  the  best  lessons  teaching  safety  in  the  schools.  It  is  expected 
that  this  study  of  the  question  of  safety  will  tend  to  reduce  the  number  of 
accidents  and  the  death  rate  due  to  traffic  mishaps,  which  reaches  an  alarming 
total  each  year. 

Regional  Conferences 

The  Tennessee  Conference,  which  is  being  held  in  Knoxville,  is  the  sixth 
of  its  kind  held  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  in  cooperation  with  the 
leading  universities  and  colleges  interested  in  the  new  problems  of  highway 
transport.  It  is  hoped  that  the  scientific  and  technical  studies  which  are 
presented  at  such  conferences  will  stimulate  the  highway  engineering  officers, 
the  automobile  and  motor  truck  users  to  give  much  more  serious  study  to 
the  economic  problems  involved.  This  will  result  in  a  great  saving  of  money 
to  the  country  and  will  hasten  the  new  era  of  prosperity  to  which  the  country 
looks  forward  with  increasing  hope. 


Highway  Hazards 

By  M.  O.  Eldridge^  Director  of  Roads 
American  Automobile  Association,  Washington^  D.   C. 

Accidents  to  motorists  and  pedestrians  are  occurring  annually  in  appalling 
numbers  on  the  public  highways  and  streets  of  this  country.  Approximately 
80,000  persons  were  accidentally  killed  in  the  United  States  in  1919,  of  whom 
about  10,000  were  killed  as  a  result  of  automobile  accidents  of  one  kind  or 
another.  Unfortunately,  about  28  per  cent  of  all  the  persons  killed  by 
automobiles  were  children  under  fifteen  years  of  age. 

Obviously  the  trouble  is  due  to  increased  motor-vehicle  traffic.  A  city 
of  100,000  population  today  has  more  vehicles  on  its  streets  than  a  city 
of  a  million  population  had  ten  years  ago. 

The  blame  for  this  startling  mortality  on  our  highways  is  charged  by 
some  to  the  speed  maniac  who  cares  not  for  the  life  or  limb  of  the  pedestrian 
so  long  as  his  own  skin  is  unscathed.  Others  place  the  blame  on  the  careless 
pedestrian  who  thinks  that  he  has  a  right  to  use  the  public  streets  and  high- 
ways wherever  and  whenever  he  pleases.  Still  others  place  the  blame  on 
unsafe  highway  conditions,  to  dangerous  railroad  grade  crossings,  and  many 
other  causes. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  accidents  on  highways  are  due  to  all  of  these  causes, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  desirable  that  accident  statistics  be  gathered  in  considerable 
quantity  and  detail  and  that  the  causes  be  analyzed  with  a  view  to  deter- 
mining where  the  trouble  exists  and  the   remedies  which  should  be   applied. 

Many  facts  and  figures  have  already  been  collected  and  used  in  educational 
and  safety  week  campaigns  by  which  accidents  on  highways  and  streets  have 
been  greatly  reduced.  For  several  years  the  State  of  Iowa  has  collected  and 
published  statistics  of  this  sort.  Recently  the  state  highway  authorities  o£ 
Maryland  made  a  survey  of  accidents  occurring  on  state  highways  in  which 
fourteen  fatalities,  between  May  and  Jul3%   192 1,  were  classified  as  follows: 

Failure  to  heed  warning  at  railway  crossing 2 

Speeding    4 

Driving  on  wrong  side  of  road   4 

Reckless  driving    4 

The  Maryland  authorities  report  that  careful  motorists  usually  drive  with 
caution  in  presence  of  recognized  dangers,  such  as  steep  grades,  sharp  curves, 
and  grade  crossings,  while  the  absence  of  such  dangerous  features  gives  the 
driver  a  sense  of  security  which  prompts  him  to  take  a  chance  and  yield  to 
the  well-nigh  universal  passion   for  speed. 

Safety  First  Campaigns  Effective 

According  to  the  United  States  Census,  deaths  resulting  from  automobile 
accidents  in  sixty-six  cities  in  the  United  States  have  increased  from  1,955 
in    1915   to   3,808  in    1919,    an   increase  of  95   per   cent.     During  the  same 

23 


24  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

period,  automobile  registrations  increased  from  2,453,780  to  7,523,664,  or 
about  215  per  cent,  which  indicates  that  the  death  rate  from  motor-vehicle 
accidents  is  not  increasing  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  number  of  vehicles. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  has  for  a  number  of  years  been 
collecting  valuable  information  and  statistics  relating  to  grade  crossing  acci- 
dents throughout  the  country,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  single  causes 
of  accidents  and  deaths  on  the  highways.  A  digest  of  the  killed  and  injured 
at  grade  crossings  from   1917  to   1920  is  as  follows: 

Year                                                                  Killed  Injured  Total 

1917    1,969  4,764  6,733 

1918    1,853  5,783  6,535 

1919   1,784  4,616  6.4.00 

1920  1,791  5,077  6.868 

Thus  it  appears  that  there  have  been  killed  at  grade  crossings  during  the 
four  years  1917  to  1920  a  total  of  7,396  persons,  and  killed  and  injured  26,536 
persons.  A  crumb  of  comfort  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  fewer  persons 
were  killed  at  grade  crossings  in  1920  than  in  1917  or  1918  in  spite  of  the 
tremendous  increase  in  motor-vehicle  traffic.  This  is  probably  due  to  safety 
first  campaigns  carried  on  by  the  railroads,  automobile  clubs,  and  other 
organizations  and  to  the  elimination  of  many  dangerous  grade  crossings;  to 
the  protection  of  other  grade  crossings  by  gates,  watchmen,  bells,  wigwag 
signals  and  other  similar  devices,  and  to  the  placing  of  crossing  signs  at 
sufficient  distances  from  crossings  to  give  ample  warning  to  motorists. 

It  would  seem  utterly  impossible  to  eliminate  all  the  grade  crossings  In 
the  United  States,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  cost  of  such  work  would 
in  all  probability  amount  to  more  than  the  total  cost  of  the  railroads.  The 
remedy  would,  therefore,  seem  to  lie  in  the  elimination  of  a  few  of  the 
more  dangerous  crossings  each  year,  and  the  placing  of  watchmen,  gates, 
and  other  suitable  signals  at  the  less  dangerous  crossings. 

A  few  under-passes  already  constructed,  even  on  important  trunk-line 
highways,  are  almost  as  dangerous  as  grade  crossings  because  they  are 
frequently  placed  on  sharp  curves  and  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  traffic, 
thus  causing  head-on  or  rear-end  collisions  of  motor  vehicles.  In  future 
work  of  this  kind,  the  interests  of  the  traveling  public  would  be  best  served 
by  so  installing  these  structures  as  to  obtain  a  clear  view  of  the  road  ahead 
to  a  distance  of  at  least  300  feet. 

Causes  of  Highway  Accidents 

Accidents  on  highways  may  be  attributed  to  a  number  of  causes,  among 
which  should  be  mentioned  the  mania  for  speed,  inefficiency  and  carelessness 
of  motor-vehicle  drivers,  defective  mechanism,  glaring  or  insufficient  head- 
lights and  the  lack  of  lights  on  horse-drawn  vehicles,  jay-walking,  non- 
uniformity  of  traffic  rules  and  regulations  in  different  jurisdictions,  pedestrians 
using  the  right  side  of  the  road  instead  of  the  left  in  the  open  country, 
non-observance  of   right-of-way  rules,  vehicles  passing  other  vehicles  on  the 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  25 

wrong  side  and  vehicles  passing  street  cars  while  discharging  or  taking  on 
passengers. 

The  great  majority  of  motor-vehicle  accidents  are  probably  caused  by 
the  speed  crank  who  is  always  trying  to  get  ahead  of  a  train  or  street  car 
or  another  vehicle.  It  would  seem  better  to  arrive  at  one's  destination  a 
minute  or  two  late  rather  than  to  arrive  in  eternity  before  one's  allotted  time. 

Many  highway  accidents  are  caused  by  persons  who  fail  to  observe  the 
common  courtesies  or  rules  of  the  road  which  are  so  well  known  as  to  be 
almost  universal  in  their  application.  If  every  motorist  would  extend  the 
same  courtesies  "to  the  other  fellow"  that  he  expects  the  other  fellow  to 
extend  to  him,  the  highways  would  be  safer  for  everybody. 

Improper  lighting  of  motor  vehicles  is  responsible  for  numerous  accidents, 
especially  on  country  roads.  The  blame  for  such  accidents  is  generally  placed 
on  glaring  headlights.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  these  accidents  are  due 
to  insufficient  light  to  enable  the  motorist  to  see  where  he  is  going.  A 
headlight  which  is  producing  enough  light  on  the  road,  which  it  will  do  If 
properly  equipped,  will  not  bother  the  other  fellow,  provided  he  is  similarly 
equipped.  The  chief  cause  of  glare  appears  to  be  faulty  adjustment  of 
bulbs  in  the  headlights.  What  the  motorist  wants  is  light  and  more  light, 
but  he  wants  it  thrown  down  on  the  road  where  it  will  do  him  some 
good  and  do  his  fellow-driver  no  harm. 

Among  the  highway  hazards  which  cause  numerous  accidents  may  be 
mentioned  sharp  curves  where  the  line  of  sight  is  impaired  by  embankments, 
buildings,  or  other  obstructions,  excessive  grades,  narrow  bridges,  slippery 
road  surfaces,  dangerous  and  improperly  marked  detours,  and  defective  road 
surfaces  and  bridges. 

Chief  among  the  causes  of  accidents  In  the  cities  appears  to  be  the  lack 
of  uniform  traffic  rules  and  regulations  which  definitely  prescribe  those 
sections  of  streets  which  may  be  used  by  vehicles  and  pedestrians,  respectively. 
Some  cities  have  already  enacted  ordinances  prohibiting  jay-walking  and 
requiring  pedestrians  to  cross  the  streets  at  crossings  in  congested  districts. 

Many  well-intentioned  but  misinformed  persons  are  inclined  to  place 
the  blame  for  the  majority  of  motor-vehicle  accidents  on  the  motorist.  That 
this  is  not  the  case,  however,  is  shown  by  a  traffic  study  conducted  in  191 9 
by  the  Department  of  Health  of  New  York  City. 

The  records  of  the  New  York  Police  Department  relating  to  accidents 
caused  by  automobiles  were  tabulated  into  three  classes:  (i)  Those  caused 
by  carelessness  of  operators;  (2)  those  due  to  defective  mechanism;  (3) 
those  due  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  person  injured,  the  pedestrian. 
Tn  the  first  two  classes  800  accidents  were  due  to  carelessness  on  the  part 
of  the  operator  and  700  the  result  of  defective  mechanism,  a  total  of  1,500 
chargeable   to   vehicular  operation. 

Against  this  figure,  it  was  found  that  9,000  accidents  were  due  to  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  the  person  injured,  or  six  times  the  number  caused 
by  carelessness  of  automobile  drivers.  Of  this  9,000,  one-third,  or  3,000, 
were  injured  while  crossing  streets  elsewhere  than  at  crossings,  thus  sus- 
taining the  A.   A.   A.   contention   that,    until  pedestrian   traffic   is   regulated, 


26  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

there   will   be    slight   decrease    in   the    number    of    street   accidents    in    which 
motor  vehicles  and  pedestrians  are  concerned. 

More  Radical  Regulations   Predicted 

The  time  is  probably  not  far  distant  when  motor  vehicles  using  the  public 
streets  will  be  required  to  slow  down  at  each  properly  designated  crossing 
in  order  to  be  able  to  bring  the  vehicle  to  a  dead  stop  under  any  circum- 
stances before  crossing  the  street,  with  the  other  requirement  that  no  pedes- 
trian shall  attempt  to  cross  the  street  at  any  other  than  these  points.  When 
these  rules  are  adopted  and  enforced,  there  will  doubtless  be  a  tremendous 
reduction  in  the  number  of  accidents  and  fatalities  from  the  use  of  automobiles. 

Much  effective  work  may  be  done  along  this  line  by  students  in  colleges, 
by  collecting  and  digesting  motor-vehicle  accident  statistics  and  by  pointing 
out  the  remedies.  Campaigns  of  education,  safety  first  weeks  and  instruc- 
tion to  school  children  on  safety  problems  will  also  accomplish  much  good. 

As  an  illustration,  the  public  schools  in  the  city  of  Detroit,  as  a  result 
of  efforts  made  by  the  Detroit  Automobile  Club,  have  for  the  past  three 
years  been  teaching  safety  problems  in  the  public  schools  in  connection  with 
health  education.  During  the  first  year  in  which  such  work  was  carried 
on,  accidents  to  school  children  decreased  5.5  per  cent.  During  1920,  acci- 
dents to  school  children  decreased  29,7  per  cent  over  1918. 

With  the  ever-increasing  number  of  passenger  cars  and  commercial 
vehicles,  the  problem  of  handling  traffic  on  the  highways  is  becoming  as 
important  as  the  traffic  problems  of  the  great  trunk-line  railways,  and  sooner 
or  later  the  highway  departments  of  the  different  states  will  doubtless  find 
it  desirable  to  establish  traffic  bureaus,  presided  over  by  traffic  engineers 
who  will,  in  cooperation  with  the  construction,  maintenance  and  bridge  engi- 
neers, handle  all  problems  relating  to  traffic. 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  the  traffic  laws  and  regulations  of  the  various 
states  and  cities  is  doubtless  responsible  for  many  accidents,  for  the  motor 
vehicle  has  blotted  out  state  lines.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  a  committee 
representing  the  American  Association  of  State  Highway  Officials,  The  Motor 
and  Accessory  Manufacturers  Association,  National  Automobile  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  National  Automobile  Dealers  Association,  The  Rubber  Associa- 
tion of  America,  The  Trailer  Manufacturers  Association  of  America,  and 
the  American  Automobile  Association  prepared  some  time  ago  a  proposed 
uniform  vehicle  law. 

While  this  law  may  not  represent  the  last  word  in  motor-vehicle  regula- 
tion, still  it  contains  the  best  thought  of  the  best  informed  men  in  the  country 
on  this  subject.  The  fundamental  principles  laid  down  in  this  law  have 
already  been  incorporated  in  the  laws  of  some  of  the  states,  and  it  is  believed 
that  if  these  principles  were  generally  adopted  throughout  the  country  it 
would  go  a  long  way  towards  solving  our  traffic  problems  and  preventing 
many  accidents. 


Cost  of  Motor  Vehicle  Operation 

By  Major  I.  C.  Moller 
New  York  City 

Motor  truck  operating  costs,  like  all  other  cost  figures,  are  of  value  in  many 
different  ways  according  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put.  In  this 
case  we  are  principally  interested  in  the  effect  of  improved  road  surfaces, 
grades,  and  curves,  upon  the  cost  of  hauling  merchandise. 

The  character  of  road  has  a  very  material  influence  upon  motor  truck 
operating  cost.  To  appreciate  this  it  may  be  useful  to  consider  the  items 
which  go  to  make  up  a  complete  operating  cost  in  the  order  of  their  impor- 
tance and  the  degree  to  which  they  are  affected  by  road  conditions.  In 
general,  the  following  grouping  of  items  by  percentages  may  be  considered 
a  fair  relation: 

Per  cent 

Gasoline     23.8 

Driver    20.0 

Tires    , _ _ i7-i 

Amortization  or  depreciation   12.7 

Maintenance  and  repair  6.7 

Insurance    _ 6.5 

Garage    5-5 

Running  supplies 2.7 

Interest  and  state  license   2.7 

Lubricating  oil  1.2 

Washing  and  polishing    .  _ _ i.i 


lOO.O 

Of  these  items  the  following  are  affected  by  road  conditions: 

Per  cent 

Gasoline    23.8 

Tires    i7-i 

Amortization    or    depreciation    12.7 

Maintenance   and  repair    6.7 

Washing  and  polishing    i.i 

61.4 

It  is  thus  seen  that  road  conditions  will  have  an  effect  on  items  constitut- 
ing 61.4  per  cent  of  the  entire  cost. 

Road  conditions,  however,  will  have  other  effects  of  great  importance 
upon  the  cost  of  transportation.  Well-constructed  roads  permit  the  economi- 
cal operation  of  trucks  of  larger  capacity,  which  in  itself  represents  a  very 
important   economy,   since   trucks   of   large   capacity   are   capable   of  hauling 

27 


28  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

goods  at  lower  unit  cost  than  those  of  small  capacity.  A  large-capacity 
truck  represents  a  smaller  investment  per  unit  of  capacity  which  involves 
lower  unit  charges  for  amortization,  interest  and  insurance.  A  large 
vehicle,  while  it  costs  more  per  mile  to  operate,  does  not  involve  an 
increase  in  operating  cost  directly  proportional  to  the  additional  load  which 
it  carries,  and  consequently  all  maintenance  and  running  charges  are  pro- 
portionately less  per  ton-mile.  Thus,  in  a  recent  comparison  of  operating 
costs  it  was  found  that  under  exactly  similar  conditions  a  23^-ton  truck 
could  travel  100  miles  per  day,  delivering  25  tons;  the  3^-ton  truck  could 
travel  90  miles  a  day,  delivering  33^  tons;  the  5-ton  truck  80  miles  per  day, 
delivering  40  tons,  and  the  7j^-ton  truck  70  a  day,  delivering  525^  tons.  The 
total  cost  per  day  of  these  vehicles  was,  respectively,  $21.20  for  the  23^-ton 
truck,  $26.41  for  the  33^-ton  truck,  $26.36  for  the  5-ton  truck,  and  $27.40 
for  the  73^-ton  truck.  But  the  cost  per  ton-mile  was:  2^-ton,  16.9  cents; 
3^-ton,  15.7  cents;  5-ton,  13.1  cents,  and  7^-ton,   10.4  cents. 

A  thorough  study  of  motor  truck  operating  costs  is  of  value  to  highway 
engineers  aside  from  its  relation  to  highway  economics,  inasmuch  as  motor 
trucks  are  in  extensive  use  in  highway  building  and  their  use  in  this  field 
will  undoubtedly  continue  to  increase. 

Analytical  Discussion  of  Cost  Items 

What  are  costs?  Defined  simply,  costs  are  the  expenses  incurred  by  a 
truck  either  when  running  or  idle.  Merely  to  say  that  it  costs  $25  a  day 
to  operate  a  5-ton  truck  will  not  convey  anything  comprehensive.  Should 
this  statement  be  qualified  with  the  amount  and  kind  of  work  done,  the  cost 
figure  will  have  a  different  aspect,  for  by  giving  the  work  a  value  a  person 
is  in  a  position  to  judge  the  cost  on  the  basis  of  earnings  and  performance. 

Motor  truck  operating  costs  are  commonly  divided  into  three  classes: 
fixed,  maintenance,  and  running  charges.  For  complete  costs  it  is  necessary 
to  add  administrative  and  operative  overhead.  As  overhead  is  really  part 
of  the  accounting  of  the  business  proper  it  will  not  be  discussed  here. 

Fixed  charges,  with  one  exception,  are  those  that  do  not  vary  from  day 
to  day.  They  go  on  whether  the  truck  is  in  use  or  not.  The  exception  is 
amortization.    The  other  fixed  charges  are  interest,  insurance  and  license  fee. 

Amortization  Is  Self-maintenance 

Since  all  machinery  wears  out  in  time  and  never  can  be  liquidated  at 
its  real  value,  depreciation  should  be  allowed  for,  otherwise  the  time  will 
come  when  the  owner  will  find  that  his  investment  has  vanished.  To  allow 
for  this,  a  depreciation  charge  is  made  so  as  to  build  up  a  sinking  fund  from 
the  earnings  of  the  truck  which  will  replace  the  investment  when  the  truck 
is  worn  out.  This  method  of  self-maintenance  is  called  amortization,  a 
word  which  means  to  live  perpetually.  Amortization  is  also  defined  as  a  pro- 
rated renewal  charge.  By  amortizing  the  investment  it  is  constantly  kept 
alive  so  that  for  every  mile  that  affects  its  life,  a  certain  sum  of  money  is 
set  aside.  With  an  ideal  amortizing  method  it  will  be  found  that  the 
amortization  fund  will  equal  the  original  investment   at  the   time  when  the 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  29 

truck  is  worn  out  and  no  longer  economical  to  operate.  Motor  trucks  are 
commonly  amortized  on  two  bases,   time   and  mileage. 

Years  ago,  when  the  motor  truck  was  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  it 
was  quite  proper  to  amortize  motor  equipment  on  a  time  basis,  since  the 
vehicle  became  obsolete  within  a  comparatively  short  time.  Today,  however, 
the  basic  engineering  principles  are  practically  established  and  obsolescence 
is  no  longer  as  important  a  factor  as  it  was.  The  accepted  modern  method 
of  amortizing  a  motor  truck  is  on  the  mileage  basis.  Experience  has  shown 
that  some  trucks  are  good  for  more  than  300,000  miles,  many  records  of 
such  mileage  being  on  file.  Conservativeness,  however,  places  the  life  of  a 
truck,  for  amortization  purposes,   at  from   100,000  to   150,000  miles. 

By  employing  the  mileage  amortization  method,  every  mile  the  truck 
travels  is  paid  for,  theoretically  at  least,  and  the  sum  invested.  In  this  way 
the  original  investment  is  gradually  reduced  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  estimated 
life  of  the  truck,  there  has  been  set  aside  an  amount  sufficient  to  replace 
the  equipment  when  necessary.  By  investing  the  amortization  fund  an  income 
is  brought  in  which  should  be  credited  to  the  truck.  In  actual  practice  this 
is  rather  complicated  and  to  make  it  more  simple  this  income  is  credited 
to  interest  by  charging  interest  at  the  legal  rate  on  the  average  investment. 
Amortization  is  computed  on  the  basis  of  net  investment,  that  is,  the  total 
investment,  less  the  cost  of  tires. 

How  TO  Protect  Vehicular  Investment 

Buying  a  truck  is  making  an  investment.  It  is  necessary  to  take  from 
the  business,  either  as  cash  or  credit,  a  certain  sum  of  money.  Like  all 
sound  investments  this  money  should  have  an  earning  capacity  of  at  least  the 
rate  it  would  cost  to  borrow  a  similar  sum. 

Interest,  therefore,  should  be  charged  at  the  legal  rate  on  the  average 
investment,  that  is,  the  total  investment,  divided  by  2.  Charging  interest 
on  the  total  investment  would  be  proper  if  the  truck  were  credited  with  the 
interest  earned  by  the  sinking  fund.  But,  inasmuch  as  the  interest  earnings 
of  the  sinking  fund  are  not  carried  as  a  separate  item,  it  would  bleed  the 
investment  to  charge  interest  on  the  total  investment.  Since  the  amount 
of  the  total  investment  decreases  proportionately  as  the  sinking  fund  increases, 
the  sum  of  both  will  always  equal  the  original  investment. 

Whether  insurance  is  carried  with  an  insurance  company  or  by  one's 
self,  the  cost  should  be  charged  to  the  truck. 

Maintenance  charges  are  partly  dependent  upon  time  and  partly  upon 
mileage.  This  group  also  has  one  exception,  the  garage  charges.  The  re- 
maining items  coming  under  the  heading  of  maintenance  are:  tires,  chassis 
repair,  painting,  chassis  overhaul,  lubrication,  inspection  and  adjustment.  It 
will  be  noted  that  each  item  is  basic  in  its  effect  upon  the  condition  of  the 
truck — hence  the  term  "maintenance." 

The  garage  cost  continues  whether  the  truck  is  working  or  not.  It  is 
governed  solely  by  the  time  factor.  Garaging  charges  are  determined  in 
several  ways,  rental,  apportioned  according  to  size  of  vehicle,  and  type  of 
service.     If  space  and  service  is  bought,  each  truck  should  be  charged  with 


30  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

the  expense  it  incurs.  If  the  garage  belongs  to  the  operator,  the  trucks 
should  be  charged  with  the  standard  items  that  make  up  the  cost  of  owned 
property,  such  as  interest,  taxes,  insurance,  upkeep,  light,  heat,   and  power. 

Keeping  Down  Repair  Bills 

It  was  stated  in  the  discussion  on  amortization  that  this  item  was  calcu- 
lated on  the  basis  of  net  investment,  which  is  total  investment  less  cost 
of  tires. 

As  the  exact  mileage  of  a  tire  cannot  be  determined  when  it  is  new,  and 
as  it  is  advisable  to  fix  a  per  mile  cost  so  that  the  cost  of  operating  ma}^  be 
approximated  within  narrow  limits,  two  methods  are  used  in  making  the 
estimate.  The  first,  and  more  conservative,  method  is  to  divide  the  original 
cost  by  the  adjustment  mileage,  usually  7,000  miles;  the  second,  and  more 
common,  method  is  to  divide  the  original  cost  by  the  mileage  based  on 
experience. 

In  the  case  of  pneumatic  tires,  however,  no  account  is  taken  of  the 
cost  of  repairs.  Therefore,  before  a  true  tire  cost  can  be  determined,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  actual  tire  mileage  and  the  repair  charges.  These 
can  only  be  had  after  the  tire  has  served  its  economic  life.  Actual  tire  costs 
can,   therefore,   only  be   determined   after   the   tire   is   finally   disposed   of. 

The  cost  of  repairs,  like  tires,  cannot  be  computed  exactly  until  the  end  of  a 
definite  period  of  time,  usually  one  year.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  tires,  it  is 
advisable  to  estimate  the  cost.  Some  users  charge  against  a  truck  the  repair 
cost  at  the  lime  such  repair  is  made.  This  practice  will  result  in  a  high  cost 
per  unit  of  work  at  one  time  and  a  low  cost  at  another,  besides  being  an 
erroneous  method  of  making  such  a  charge.  If  the  time  that  elapses  while 
a  part  is  wearing  away  could  be  determined,  it  would  be  proper  to  charge 
the  cost  to  the  truck  over  that  period  of  time,  but  as  this  cannot  be  done 
with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  fairest  and  easiest  way  is  to  distribute  the 
total  yearly  cost  in  proportion  to  the  monthly  mileages. 

Just  as  a  person  needs  a  periodic  visit  to  a  dentist  to  prevent  excessive 
tooth  trouble,  so  a  motor  truck  needs  a  periodic  overhaul.  Application  of 
this  rule  will  result  in  lowered  repair  charges,  for  the  overhaul  will  disclose 
conditions  which,  if  cared  for  immediately,  will  cost  comparatively  little  to 
remedy,  but  which.  If  allowed  to  continue,  will  necessitate  heavy  expendi- 
tures. Inasmuch  as  the  benefits  of  the  overhaul  are  extended  over  a  long 
period,  the  cost  should  be  distributed  over  the  same  period  and  in  proportion 
to  milage. 

Running  charges  are  aptly  named.  They  are  the  costs  that  are  incurred 
only  when  the  truck  is  running.  They  are:  gasoline,  oil  and  supplies,  such 
as  cup  grease,  transmission  oil,  kerosene,  and  driver's  and  helper's  wages. 
These  items  usually  total  nearly  half  the  total  cost  of  operating  a  truck.  It  is, 
therefore,  here  that  one  must  keep  especially  close  watch  if  economy  is  to 
be  maintained. 

From  the  very  inception  of  truck  accounting,  there  has  raged  a  fierce 
verbal  battle  over  the  term  "unit-mile."  Defined,  unlt-mlle  means  the  carrying 
of  a  unit  a  distance  of  one  mile.     It  makes  no  difference  what  the  unit  is. 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  31 

In  excavating  work  it  might  be  the  cubic  yard,  in  coal  hauling  the  ton,  in 
department  store  work  the  package,  in  dairying  the  40-quart  can,  in  cooperage 
work  the  barrel. 

Most  authorities  now  agree  that  the  unit-mile  should  be  computed  by 
dividing  the  average  round  trip  distance  by  2  and  multiplying  the  quotient 
by  the  total  tonnage. 

By  adopting  a  uniform  method  of  computing  the  unit-mile,  operators,  in 
comparing   costs,    speak    a   common    language. 

Discussion  of  Cost  Systems 

Ever  since  the  motor  truck's  invention,  students  have  diligently  studied 
costs.  Scores  of  cost  systems  have  been  devised.  Tire  and  truck  manufac- 
turers have  employed  expert  accountants  to  tabulate  statistics  and  compile 
systems,  advertising  literature  has  glowed  with  impressive  arrays  of  figures, 
but  nowhere  could  two  separate  cost  statements  be  directly  compared.  No 
two  estimates  included  all  the  items  necessary  or  computed  them  in  quite 
the  same  way.  Nearly  all  compilations  and  systems  showed,  on  study,  that 
certain  important  items  had  been  omitted.  Nowhere  were  the  methods  of 
figuring  depreciation,  interest,  overhead,  or  performance  uniform. 

Finally  a  series  of  Truck  Owners'  Conferences  held  in  a  dozen  or  more 
of  the  principal  cities  of  the  country  during  the  past  five  years  brought 
forth  the  National  Standard  Truck  Cost  System.  Since  its  initial  appearance,, 
truck  and  tire  manufacturers  have  abandoned  their  own  systems  to  adopt 
the  new.  Even  so  impartial  an  organization  as  the  National  Automobile 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  the  official  automotive  vehicle  manufacturers*  organi- 
zation, has,  in  recent  months,  adopted  the  system  as  standard  for  the  motor 
truck  industry. 

One  may  advisedly  ask  how  the  new  standard  system  differs  from  its 
unsuccessful  predecessors  and  why  it  has  succeeded  where  others  have 
failed.  Primarily,  its  success  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  it  originated  at 
a  conference  at  which  were  many  experts  with  many  points  of  view.  It  was 
not  produced  as  a  business  enterprise,  but  solely  as  a  service  to  operators 
of  motor  trucks  and  is  distributed  at  the  cost  of  publication. 

In  itself,  the  system  represents  a  distinct  advance  over  any  similar  attempt, 
not  only  in  its  origin  and  distribution,  but  in  many  of  its  accounting  features. 
Old  moss-encrusted  traditions  of  motor  truck  accounting  have  been  eliminated. 
It  is  not  permanent  in  form,  but  is  subject  to  annual  revision  by  a  com- 
mittee of  experts  representing  varied  interests,  so  that  it  may  be  kept  up  to 
date  and  accommodated  to  changes  in  conditions  as  time  goes  on. 

This  National  Standard  Cost  System  is  but  one  example  of  the  astonishing 
degree  to  which  the  automotive  industry  has  developed  standardization. 
Standardization  of  details  of  design,  materials,  manufacture  and  business 
procedure  has  been  a  determining  factor  in  the  production  of  reliable,  econom- 
ical highway  vehicles.  These  are  vehicles  responsible  for  the  tremendous 
strides  which  have  been  made  in  highway  design  and  construction  in  the 
last  fifteen  years.  The  motor  vehicle  industry  may  be  said  to  have  created^ 
from  mere  pygmies  before  its  advent,  two  industrial  giants,  the  oil  industry 


32  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

and  the  highway  industry.  No  industry  can  grow  and  flourish  that  does  not 
serve  the  public  well  and  serve  harmoniously  with  other  industries.  Let  us 
have  standardized  highways,  standardized  in  harmony  with  the  vehicles 
for  which  they  are  built,  to  the  end  that  the  combination  of  vehicle  and 
road  will  serve  the  public  so  well  that  these  twin  industries  will  quickly 
attain  the  magnitude  for  which  they  are  destined. 


The  Living  Road 

By  Pyke  Johnson 
National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce 

If  there  is  any  one  fact  which  should  be  impressed  on  the  people  of 
America  today  it  is  that  we  can  no  longer  think  of  the  highway  merely  as  a 
material  thing.  The  highway  is  a  living  force  which  serves  to  bind  the 
people  of  this  country  more  closely  together,  which  stamps  out  isolation 
and  heightens  our  standards  of  living.  Into  its  building  and  use  go  all  of  the 
elements  of  romance  and  adventure  which  the  railroads  had  in  the  olden 
days,  and  it  is  only  as  we  emphasize  anew  these  phases  of  the  highway 
question  that  we  can  hope,  first,  to  instill  an  esprit  de  corps  in  the  men  who 
are  carrying  on  the  work  today  and,  second,  to  appeal  to  the  youth  which 
will  cause  him  to  turn  to  the  work  tomorrow. 

How  many  men  are  there  who  can  look  back  to  the  time  when  as  boys 
they  sat  on  the  old  rail  fence  watching  the  trains  go  by  and  pictured  them-j 
selves  as  the  ones  who  would  handle  the  throttle  of  the  engine  in  the  future? 
How  many  men  are  there  today  who  have  read  far  into  the  night  with  bated 
breath  the  stories  of  those  days  of  adventure  when  the  pioneer  gangs  of  the 
railroads  broke  their  way  through  the  wilderness  for  the  steel  rails  to 
follow,  and  how  many  men  are  there  today  who  realize  that  in  highway 
transport  they  have  at  their  very  threshold  the  same  opportunities  for 
romance  and  adventure,  the  same  opportunities  for  civic  betterment  that 
the  railroads  carried  with  them  in  the  old  days? 

How  many  men  know  that  today  the  road  highway  gangs  of  the  states 
and  the  Government  are  traveling  on  snowshoes  in  the  northern  country, 
surveying  the  way  for  the  highways  to  come;  that  other  gangs  are  hanging 
suspended  from  high  cliffs  over  rushing  waters  that  the  highway  may  be 
broken  along  the  canon's  side;  that  throughout  the  western  country  men  are 
forcing  their  way  through  virgin  forest  in  order  that  means  of  communication 
may  be  opened  up?  How  many  men  know  that  in  the  use  of  highways 
China  is  finding  a  means  to  the  prevention  of  famine,  Brazil  is  opening  up 
a  vast  new  empire  of  hard  woods  and  produce,  while  in  our  own  country 
on  every  side  the  building  of  new  highways  is  infusing  new  life  into  com- 
munities deadened  by  loss  of  trade  transferred  to  other  communities  more 
fortunate   in  their   transportation? 

Transportation  a  Factor  in  Progress 

Romance  and  adventure  await  the  pioneer  in  highway  transport  on  every 
side,  whether  he  go  abroad  or  whether  he  search  about  him  in  the  urban 
or  suburban  fields  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  these  things  which  we  must  impress  upon  our  road  builders  and  our 
students,  and  it  is  this  broad  field  of  opportunity  which  it  is  hoped  to  sketch 
out  somewhat  in  what  is  to  follow. 

33 


34  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

In  order  to  obtain  an  intelligent  understanding  of  highway  transport  today, 
it  is  perhaps  necessary  to  review  briefly  the  whole  question  of  transportation. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  civilization  follows  in  the  wake  of  transportation, 
and  for  affirmation  of  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  go  back  to  that  day  in  the 
far  distant  past  when  the  man  of  the  family  first  discovered  that  he  could 
ease  his  load  by  pushing  a  log  underneath  it.  From  that  time  on  down 
through  the  ages  the  rise  or  fall  of  empire  has  depended  upon  transporta- 
tion. Phoenicia  ruled  because  of  its  mastery  of  the  waves.  The  Venetian 
cities,  the  Hanseatic  League,  the  modern  empires — all  owe  their  position  to 
their  communication  facilities.  It  is  only  necessary  to  consider  the  plight 
of   Russia  to   realize  what   the   reverse   side   of  the   picture   brings   with  it. 

In  our  own  country  transportation  has  always  been  a  decided  factor  in 
our  advancement.  Those  who  recall  the  story  of  the  first  settlement  of  the 
United  States  know  that  postal  development  came  first  because  of  the  need 
for  retaining  communication  with  the  mother  country.  Inland  waterways 
were  the  first  channels  of  communication  with  the  interior,  and  these  were 
followed  by  the  beginnings  of  a  national  highway  system  in  the  early  con- 
struction of  the  National  Pike.  The  advent  of  the  railroad  checked  this 
development,  and  for  a  period  of  more  than  a  hundred  years  we  find  that 
the  economic  zones  of  commerce  in  this  country  have  depended  largely  upon 
the  railroads,  which,  generally  speaking,  pushed  from  east  to  west  and  from 
north  to  south. 

In  all  of  the  thousands  of  years  of  development  of  transportation  there 
was  no  real  progress  in  highway  transport  until  the  advent  of  the  motor 
vehicle  twenty-six  years  ago.  Until  that  time  the  transportation  vehicles  of 
the  ancients  were  practically  as  efficient  as  those  of  the  modern  farmer. 
Searchers  in  archeological  records  of  the  past  discovered  in  a  tomb  four 
thousand  years  old  a  wheel  with  a  demountable  rim,  and  aside  from  a  few 
refinements  in  the  wagon  and  a  better  breed  of  stock  no  real  advancement 
was  made  in  all  this  period.  Then  came  the  motor  vehicle.  Twenty-six  years 
ago  there  were  four  of  them  in  the  United  States.  Six  years  ago  there  were 
a  million.  Today  there  are  nine  and  a  quarter  million  cars  in  the  United 
States,  or  one  to  every  eleven  persons  or  to  every  two  and  a  half  families. 
In  many  states  the  number  is  so  great  that  the  entire  population  of  the  com- 
monwealth could  be  transported  at  one  time  in  motor  vehicles.  What  the 
future  may  hold  for  further  development  no  one  can  say,  beyond  making 
this  one  statement,  that  every  normal  man  and  woman  is  a  potential  prospect 
for  the  automobile  salesman  because  of  that  inherent  desire  for  individual 
transportation  which  first  finds  its  expression  in  the  youth  sitting  on  the 
rail  fence  watching  the  trains  go  by. 

The  Imponderables  Must  Be  Counted 

In  this  revolutionary  development  of  modern  highway  transport  we  find 
influences  and  effects  which  go  far  beyond  the  mere  economic  phases  of  living, 
important  as  they  are  and  far-reaching  as  they  may  be.  The  first  effects  to  be 
observed  are  what  Prof.  W.  K.  Hatt  has  called  "the  imponderables,"  those 
influences  which  cannot  be  readily  translated  into  dollars  and  cents,  but  which 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  35 

reach  deeper  into  the  life  of  the  country  than  those  aspects  which  lend 
themselves  to  ledger  treatment. 

Through  the  use  of  the  motor  vehicle  the  city  man  of  today  finds  it 
possible  to  live  in  the  country,  and  as  the  highway  is  improved  we  are 
moving  forward  to  an  entirely  new  and  as  yet  not  fully  understood  develop- 
ment of  our  cities  which  will  gradually  wipe  out  the  slums  as  the  need 
for  a  concentrated  business  section  is  found  less  imperative.  The  day  is 
not  far  off  (there  are  already  evidences  of  it  in  England)  when  manufacturing 
plants  will  be  moved  into  the  country  to  avoid  the  congestion  of  the  city, 
thus  making  possible   a  plot  of  ground   for   each  workman   and  his   family. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  picture  the  farm  is  freed  from  the  shackle 
of  isolation  which  has  in  the  past  made  life  almost  unbearable  in  its  drab 
monotony  for  the  farmer's  wife.  Today  the  farmer  of  Iowa  is  as  familiar 
with  the  problems  of  the  farmer  of  Vermont  as  were  farmers  living  in 
adjoining  counties  twenty  years  ago.  Distance  has  been  eliminated  and 
while  we  may  point  to  the  broadened  marketing  possibilities,  the  increased 
real  estate  valuations  and  those  other  physical  aspects  which  follow  in  the 
wake  of  the  improved  highways  used  by  the  modern  vehicle,  the  real  change 
which  has  been  wrought  is  in  the  improved  social  conditions  of  the  country. 

The  owner  of  a  motor  vehicle  and  his  family  are  more  in  the  open 
than  the  man  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  would  have  ever  deemed  pos- 
sible. They  see  more  of  their  country.  Their  educational  facilities  are 
better  because  of  the  consolidated  schools,  made  possible  by  the  commu- 
nity bus,  and  their  possibilities  for  recreation,  which  is  just  as  much  a  part 
of  living  as  the  working  side,  have  been  increased  a  hundred-fold. 

Transportation — A  Fifty-billion-dollar  Industry 

However,  there  are  those  who  prefer  to  consider  these  questions  from  the 
standpoint  of  their  effect  on  economics,  and  for  this  class  I  would  suggest 
that  what  we  are  dealing  with  here  today  is  a  fifty-billion-dollar  industry — 
transportation.  On  the  one  side,  or  rather  as  one  link  in  the  chain,  the 
rail  lines  are  valued  at  twenty  billion  dollars.  As  another  link,  the  high- 
ways are  valued  at  twenty  billion  dollars,  and  here  the  word  highways  is 
used  to  include  the  value  of  the  highways  and  the  vehicles  going  over  them; 
then  we  have  electric  lines,  our  marine  shipping,  canals  and  forms  of  electrical 
communication,  reaching  another  ten  billions  of  dollars.  All  in  all,  a  sum 
greater  than  twice  the  entire  debt  of  the  United  States  and  almost  equal 
to  the  value  of  all  of  its  manufactured  products  for  the  past  year. 

What  is  the  future  of  this  great  industry?  What  are  the  problems  which 
it  brings  with  it?  What  is  the  field  of  opportunity  which  it  affords  to  the 
youth  of  the  country?  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  major  problems  of  trans- 
portation seemed  to  be  solved.  The  imposition  of  a  vast,  heavy  mode  of 
traffic  on  our  highways,  with  its  enormous  development  and  its  immense 
requirements  of  all  kinds  of  raw  material,  its  acceleration  of  all  other 
forms  of  industry,  have  changed  all  this.  New  and  intricate  questions  are 
present  from  all  sides,  and  it  is  perhaps  enough  for  the  purpose  of  this 
discussion  to  indicate  only  a  few  of  the  more  important. 


36  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

Problems  for  Future  Debate 

We  must  fit  anew  the  vehicle  to  the  highway  over  which  it  travels.  In 
France,  for  example,  a  law  has  recently  been  passed  which  says  that  839 
pounds  per  inch  of  running  tire  shall  be  the  maximum  for  the  load  on  each 
wheel  of  a  vehicle.  Is  this  the  standard  which  is  to  be  followed  in  this 
country  in  the  future?  The  question  is  one  that  involves  a  wide  range 
of  research  into  many  phases  of  economics. 

The  first  question  to  be  answered  is  whether  there  is  need  for  a  highway 
in  any  given  location.  Does  the  economic  welfare  or  the  imponderable  benefit 
to  be  derived  by  the  community  require  its  construction?  What  do  the 
surveys  and  traffic  data  show?  What  changes  should  be  made  in  the  high- 
way itself?  What  saving  can  be  effected  in  the  traffic  over  the  highway 
through  new  gradients,  banked  curves  and  other  refinements  of  modern 
highway  construction  to  reduce  tractive  and  power  resistance?  What  means 
shall  be  found  for  the  financing  of  this  undertaking,  larger  than  any  other 
domestic  activity  of  the  Government?  Political  boundaries  are  no  barrier 
to  the  cruising  radius  of  a  motor  vehicle.  A  local  community  cannot  be 
expected  to  bear  the  full  expense  of  maintenance  of  rights  of  way  for 
travel  which  might  originate  and  end  entirely  without  its  jurisdiction.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  general  public,  is  it  well  to  thrust  a  burden  of  taxation 
upon  a  unit  of  transportation  which  in  one  of  its  aspects  alone,  that  of 
the  excise  tax  imposed  by  the  Federal  Government,  reaches  a  total  today 
greater  than  all  of  the  tax  paid  by  all  of  the  corporations  in  the  United 
States  prior  to  1916?  How  far  is  it  economic  to  go  in  the  imposition  of 
motor  registration  fees,  $108,000,000  of  which  have  been  collected  for  the 
first  six  months  of  this  year,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  Bureau  of 
Public  Roads,  or,  putting  it  another  way,  $6,000,000  more  than  was  col- 
lected throughout  the  entire  year  of  1920;  always  remembering,  however, 
that  collections  are  far  greater  in  the  first  half  than  in  the  last  six  months 
of  the  year? 

What  is  to  be  done  regarding  the  administrative  control  of  the  highway, 
both  in  construction  and  maintenance  as  well  as  operation?  Can  this  ques- 
tion be  left  long  a  local  unit  when,  as  indicated,  it  extends  beyond  local 
bounds?  It  would  appear  that  systems  of  highways  will  be  necessary.  How 
are  these  systems  to  be  finally  selected  and  classified? 

The  question  of  traffic  control  has  become  a  major  one  in  many  cities. 
It  extends  also  to  the  rural  use  of  the  highway.  It  involves  even  the 
very  physical  contours  of  metropolitan  development  and  always  it  carries 
with  it  major  questions  of  safety  which  must  be  solved. 

Then  we  have  again  that  other  question  of  the  inter-relationship  of 
transportation.  What  new  forms  of  development  are  we  coming  to  in  intra- 
state traffic?  Is  the  terminal  to  be  continued?  It  appears  that  the  modern 
development  of  the  motor  truck  is  to  supplement  the  rail  line,  to  take  from 
it  those  short  hauls  which  have  been  unprofitable,  or  perhaps  for*  the  railroad 
itself — and  this  seems  a  more  logical  conclusion — to  use  both  forms  of  carrier. 
What  is  the  field  for  this  development?     Where  do  the  highway  transport 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  37 

vehicles  stand  in  relation  to  the  waterways  and  the  electric  lines?  All  have 
their  economic  place.     The  question  is  its  development. 

So  the  inquiry  might  be  carried  on — questions  of  construction,  of  mainte- 
nance, of  operation,  of  financing  operation — all  these  point  heavily  to  the 
none  too  plentiful   resources   in   trained  men   available  today. 

Thousands  of  men  will  be  needed  in  the  future  m  all  phases  of  this  great 
problem  of  highway  transport.  The  field  is  a  vast  one,  limited  only  by 
the  range  of  human  communities.  It  transcends  the  question  of  development 
of  this  country.  It  penetrates  into  every  section  of  the  globe.  In  it  is  afforded 
a  place  for  the  young  man  and  a  place  which  calls  for  service  of  the 
highest  tj'pe,  and  it  will  not  be  until  we  have  arrived  at  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  these  questions  of  the  development  of  highway  transport  that 
we  can  hope  to  reach  the  ideal  of  a  quickened  America  which  only  the 
highest  type  of  transportation  facilities  can   afford. 


A  Maintenance  Plan  for  Tennessee  Highways 

By  Ben   L.   Cunliff 
Maintenance  Engineer,  Tennessee  Department  of  Highways 

In  organizing  a  Maintenance  Division  in  the  Department  of  Highways, 
and  in  planning  and  carrying  out  a  maintenance  system  throughout  the  state, 
we  are  limited  at  present  by  several  factors,  one  of  the  main  ones  being 
lack  of  sufficient  funds  in  both  the  state  and  county  treasuries  to  enable 
us  to  carry  out  the  system  as  we  would  like  to  see  it  carried  out. 

Considering  this  main,  limiting  factor,  it  devolves  upon  us  to  get  the 
utmost  efficiency  out  of  the  funds  that  are  available  or  can  be  made 
available,  and  it  is  with  this  in  mind  that  the  following  plan  for  a  maintenance 
system  in  Tennessee  has  been  worked  out. 

Funds  will  be  made  available  for  the  proper  patrol  maintenance  on  those 
state  and  Federal  aid  highway  projects  which  the  state  has  contracted  to 
maintain  and  the  maintenance  of  these  highways  or  sections  of  highways 
will  merely  amount  to  a  part  of  the  routine  duties  of  the  Maintenance 
Division.  I  might  state  in  passing  that  it  is  our  intention  to  keep  these 
sections  in  first-class  condition  always,  as  an  example  or  model  for  the 
rest  of  the  highways. 

These  sections,  so  far,  comprise  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  the 
whole  system  in  the  state.  The  state  and  Federal  system  of  main  trunk 
lines  consists  of  about  4,500  miles,  and  the  inter-county-seat  highways  consist 
of  a  little  over  6,000  miles,  making  a  total  of  over  10,500  miles  of  high- 
ways in  the  state  system. 

At  present  the  rate  of  progress  in  new  State  and  Federal  Aid  projects 
is  limited  by  congressional  appropriations  to  not  more  than  500  miles  per 
year,  hence  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  considerable  time  will  elapse  before 
the  higher  types  of  construction  can  be  applied  all  over  the  system,  and  the 
demand  for  "Good  Roads,  Now"  makes  it  imperative  that  something  be 
done  to  save  and  improve  the  roads  we  already  have. 

In  only  a  very  few  counties  in  the  state  is  there  even  an  attempt  at 
systematic  maintenance  being  made.  The  usual  method  used  by  the  counties 
is  to  wait  until  the  road  has  worn  out  and  has  become  almost  impassable, 
and  then  appropriate  some  money  to  "work"  the  road.  On  some  of  the 
main  traveled  roads  this  "working"  becomes  necessary  two  or  three  times 
a  year,  and  the  method  in  almost  all  cases  costs  the  county  far  more  than 
an  efficient  patrol  maintenance  system  would  cost. 

Our  first  idea,  then,  is  to  promote  patrol  maintenance  and  to  educate  the 
officials  and  the  public  to  the  economy  and  efficiency  of  a  patrol  maintenance 
system,  in  which  the  highways  are  divided  into  sections  of  from  4  to  10  or 
12  miles,  with  a  patrolman  on  each  section,  the  patrolman  being  assisted 
when  necessary  by  maintenance  gangs  working  out  from  the  county  seat. 

38 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  39 


A  Constructive  Maintenance  System 

The  system  we  propose  is  not  only  a  maintenance  system — it  is  more 
than  that,  and  might  properly  be  called  a  constructive  maintenance  system, 
for  the  patrolman  will  be  charged  with  the  gradual  improvement  of  his 
section,  in  addition  to  the  maintenance  of  it.  The  improvements  will  consist 
of  widening  the  shoulders  and  the  road  bed,  installing  better  drainage  where 
necessary,  improving  the  type  of  surface,  when  possi"ble,  by  the  use  of  local 
materials.  For  instance,  in  West  Tennessee  there  are  hundreds  of  miles 
of  clay  roads  that  can  be  made  into  sand-clay  roads  and  can  be  thus  improved 
by  the  patrolman,  or,  where  creek  or  bank  gravel  is  available,  a  clay  road 
can  be  turned  gradually  into  a  gravel  road  by  the  patrolmen.  P'inally, 
the  depth  of  the  wearing  surface  can  be  gradually   increased. 

Thus  the  patrolman  will  not  only  be  able  to  keep  his  road  open  for 
traffic,  but  as  the  traffic  increases  he  will  be  able  to  keep  up  with  the 
increase  and  a  little  ahead  of  it,  and  the  counties,  instead  of  getting  behind 
farther  every  year,  will  thus  not  only  have  maintained  their  roads,  but 
will  have  better  roads  each  year  than  the  year  before,  and  the  cost  will 
be  no  greater,  but  probably  much  less. 

Now,  as  to  the  application  of  this  idea.  If  we  were  to  go  to  the  county 
officials,  and  arbitrarily  tell  them  to  adopt  this  plan,  we  would  most  likely 
be  met  with  a  refusal  just  on  general  principles,  so,  instead,  we  are  telling 
them  about  the  plan  and  offering  the  services  of  an  experienced  maintenance 
engineer,  should  they  request  his  services,  who  will  go  over  their  county 
highway  system  with  them,  lay  out,  and  estimate  the  cost  of  a  patrol  mainte- 
nance system  which  will  be  within  reach  of  the  available  funds  of  the 
county;  assist  them  in  making  out  a  budget  that  will  take  care  of  the  system 
throughout  the  year;  and,  after  the  system  is  adopted,  assist  them  in 
establishing  the  patrols  and  instructing  the  patrolmen,  and  then  make  fre- 
quent inspection  to  see  that  the  system  is  properly  carried  out. 

Naturally  there  will  be  some  counties  which  will  be  slower  in  taking  up 
the  idea  than  others,  and  in  those  counties  especially,  an  actual  example  of 
patrol  maintenance  will  go  a  long  way  toward  the  adoption  of  the  entire 
system.  This  brings  us  to  the  last  feature  of  the  plan  and  the  adoption  of 
it  will  mean,  for  the  entire  state,  a  well-maintained  trunk-line  system,  and 
it  will  incidentallv  mean  the  elimination  of  much  of  the  discontent  among 
the  larger  counties  over  the  distribution  of  the  automobile  tax  fund. 

Where  the  Automobile  Tax  Goes 

The  automobile  tax  now  is  collected  in  all  the  counties  and  turned  over 
to  the  state.  Half  of  it  goes  to  the  State  Highway  Department,  and  the 
other  half  is  then  divided  evenly  among  all  the  counties,  to  be  spent  by 
the  counties  under  the  direction  or  with  the  authority  of  the  State  Highway 
Department.  To  date  the  department  has  granted  permission  for  its  ex- 
penditure on  the  various  local  county  roads,  and  in  the  smaller  counties  it 
has  been  scattered  out  around  the  districts,  used,  and  forgotten.  It  is 
now  proposed   that   this   fund   shall  be   used,   in   the  counties,   primarily   for 


40  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

the  proper  patrol  maintenance  of  the  main  trunk  lines  through  the  counties, 
thus  assuring  the  automobile  tax  payer  of  a  just  return  for  his  taxes  in  an 
improved  state  system  of  roads  that  he  can  and  will  use,  and  thus  assuring 
the  counties  of  the  proper  maintenance  of  their  main  highways,  for  almost 
invariably  the  trunk  line  systems  form  the  main  highways  in  the  counties 
through  which  they  run. 

In  most  cases  the  trunk-line  system  will  not  require  the  expenditure  of 
all  this  fund,  and  in  these  cases  authority  will  be  given  for  use  of  the 
balance  of  the  fund  on  other  roads  after  a  budget  is  made  which  will  take 
care  of  the  trunk-line  system. 

The  Maintenance  Division  and  the  Maintenance  Plan  are  both  in  their 
infancy  in  Tennessee,  but  we  feel  that  with  the  help  and  cooperation  of 
the  counties  and  that  by  helping  and  cooperating  with  the  counties  we  can 
establish  a  system  of  well-maintained  roads  in  Tennessee  and  actually  get 
"Good  Roads,  Now." 

Discussion 

W.  R.  Neel,  State  Highway  Engineer,  Georgia  Highway  Department,  said : 

"We  adopted  the  policy  of  taking  over  for  maintenance  the  roads  as  we 
constructed  them.  We  have  been  given  the  entire  automobile  license  fees 
to  use  in  the  maintenance  of  these  roads.  We  now  have  turned  over  to 
us,  by  recent  legislative  action,  5,500  miles  of  road,  and  we  are  studying 
what  we  are  going  to  do  with  5,500  miles  of  road,  50  per  cent  of  which 
are  unimproved,  and  satisfy  the  public.  We  have  been  preaching  mainte- 
nance to  the  counties,  little  thinking  that  we  would  suddenly  have  this 
problem  thrust  upon  us. 

"We  have  divided  the  state  into  eleven  sections,  or  divisions,  about  550 
miles  to  the  division.  We  have  adopted  not  only  the  patrol  system,  but  the 
gang  system  as  well — a  combination  of  both.  We  will  have  in  each  division 
a  heavy  maintenance  organization.  We  expect  to  have  three  gangs  properly 
equipped  with  heavy  equipment — big  tractors,  road  machines,  scarifiers,  trucks, 
etc.  Then  we  have  divided  the  550-mile  maintenance  division  into  50-mile 
sections  and  are  organizing  a  patrol  on  each  of  these  sections,  placing  one 
man  in  charge  with  five  men  and  one  machine  operator  on  each  patrol 
section.  The  50-mile  sections  will  be  equipped  with  light  equipment,  such 
as  road  machines,  tractors,  trucks,  scrapes,  etc.  On  the  first  of  the  year 
we  will  take  over  this  5,500  miles  of  road  and  have  the  complete  equipment 
in  operation. 

"We  did  not  wish  to  pay  the  entire  amount  out  of  the  first  year's  funds 
for  all  of  the  new  equipment.  We  found  that  it  would  take  about  $700,000 
in  addition  to  the  equipment  the  Government  had  given  us  to  equip  fully 
the  entire  organization,  so  we  made  arrangements  to  buy  this  equipment  and 
pay  for  it  in  three  years.  The  machinery  dealers  first  investigated  how  we 
intended  to  handle  that  equipment.  We  explained  that  we  had  three  expert 
mechanics  who  must  first  certify  that  the  man  handling  each  piece  of  the 
equipment  has  had  sufficient  experience  to   take  intelligent  care  of  it.     We 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  41 

also  explained  that  we  would  have  inspectors  always  moving  over  the  state 
to  see  that  the  equipment  was  being  properly  maintained.  After  this 
explanation  they  readily  agreed  to  give  us  the  same  price  as  if  we  were 
to  pay  cash  for  the  equipment." 

W.  N.  Gladson,  Dean,  College  of  Engineering,  University  of  Arkansas, 
said :  "Two  and  one-half  years  ago  our  state,  through  the  influence  of  the 
governor,  agreed  to  a  policy  which  would  call  for  an  appropriation  of  $ioo,- 
000,000  on  the  highways  of  the  state.  We  have  done  a  great  deal  of  con- 
struction and  we  have  made  a  great  many  mistakes.  If  we  have  profited  by 
our  mistakes,  however,  they  have  not  been  too  costly. 

"In  my  opinion,  our  greatest  problem  is  to  get  highway  engineers  who 
are  conscientious,  high-class  engineers,  who  are  working  not  merely  for 
dollars  and  cents  but  for  their  own  reputation.  It  has  been  said  that  a 
doctor  can  bury  his  mistakes,  but  an  engineer  must  live  with  his.  Our  state 
made  a  grave  mistake  in  improving  our  roads  under  the  district  law,  in 
which  each  district  is  a  unit  in  itself.  The  road  belongs  to  the  district  and 
that  district  may  maintain  the  road  or  let  it  go  to  pieces.  Our  Highway 
Commission  has  not  had  enough  authority  in  building  the  roads  and  in 
determining  the  character  of  the  roads  and  where  they  should  be  built.  It 
has  not  had  the  authority  to  see  that  the  roads  were  maintained.  Many 
farmers  were  led  to  believe  that  after  the  road  has  been  built  it  will  be 
there  forever  without  any  more  cost,  when,  in  fact,  the  roads  we  are 
building,  largely  gravel  and  macadam,  will  be  worn  out  before  the  bonds 
which  were  issued  for  their  construction  are  retired,  if  they  are  not  properly 
maintained. 


Justifiable  Expenditures  on   the  Highway  Program 

By  H.  G.  McGee 

Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  Akron,  Ohio 

Suppose  we  assume  that  a  highway  improvement  is  worth  only  as  much 
as  its  returns  in  service  exceed  its  cost.  Suppose  we  also  assume  what  may 
be  equally  true:  that  for  any  improvement  for  which  returns  will  exceed 
cost,  we  pay  an  unnecessary  premium  to  do  without  it. 

An  estimate  of  returns  and  of  cost  for  a  proposed  improvement,  then, 
will  indicate  whether  it  is  worth  building  or  not.  Similar  estimates  for  all 
the  roads  in  a  district  will  give  us  a  construction  program,  starting  with  the 
most  worth  while,  which  oifers  highway  transport  its  best  opportunity  to 
serve   and   to   prosper. 

Fairly  reliable  cost  estimates  form  a  routine  part  of  every  engineering 
report.  What  are  the  expected  service  returns  which  are  equally  important 
in  judging  the  appropriateness  of  a  proposed  improvement? 

The  following  figures  are  offered  as  evidence  of  magnitude  rather  than 
precise  measures  of  value.  If  they  serve  only  to  separate  the  certainly 
unprofitable  road  investments  from  those  possibly  profitable,  they  will  be 
a    step    in   the    right    direction. 

For  convenience,  suppose  highway  traffic  is  divided  into  three  classes, 
viz.:  (i)  through,  or  intercity;  (2)  rural,  or  local;  and  (3)  terminal,  or 
interior.  If  the  returns  for  each  of  these  three  classes  are  estimated 
rationally  and  then  added  together,  the  total  ought,  by  the  laws  of  chance, 
to  come  closer  to  the  true  return  than  will  a  blanket  estimate  of  the  whole. 

Through  or  Intercity  Traffic 

Any  highway  improvement  worth  paying  for  will  reduce  the  cost  of 
operating  vehi'cles  over  it.  Since  the  total  savings  for  any  improvement 
comprise  the  product  of  the  saving  per  vehicle  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
vehicles,  volume  of  traffic  and  unit  economies  are  equally  important. 

Other  things  being  equal,  it  seems  reasonable  to  assume  that  there  will 
be  more  highway  traffic  between  large  places  than  small,  and  that  there 
will  be  more  traffic  between  places  nearby  than  those  far  apart. 

Wellington's  historic  study  of  the  economics  of  railway  location  points 
out  that  each  individual  is  a  potential  producer  of  traffic  with  each  other 
individual  on  the  same  line.  Over  a  large  area,  he  states,  traffic  would 
therefore  vary  with  the  square  of  the  population.  The  1920  Statistical 
Abstract  of  the  United  States  indicates  that  the  number  of  railroad,  passen- 
gers carried  has  increased  from  1890  to  1918  almost  exactly  as  the  square 
of  the  population  of  continental  United  States,  due  allowance  being  made 
for  periodic  business  booms  and  depressions;  freight  has  increased  from 
about  10  tons  per  capita  to  over  20,  perhaps  a  third  more  than  the  square 
of  the  population;  ton-mileage  50  per  cent  more  than  the  square.  This 
pyramiding  of  transportation  demands  ought  to  be  cheering  to  motor  interests 

42 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  43 

which  may  be  worried  by  "saturation  points."  But  to  get  back  to  the 
highways. 

In  1918  Cleveland  had  a  population  of  about  750,000,  and  Akron  160,000; 
in  1920  Cleveland  had  798,000,  and  Akron  208,000.  If  highway  traffic  does 
vary  with  the  product  of  populations  connected,  the  191 8  traffic  on  the  one 
paved  road  connecting  the  two  cities  would  be  to  the  1920  traffic  as  120,000 
is  to  166,200.  Actually,  passenger  car  traffic  rose  from  6,586  per  week  to 
9,450,  less  than  4  per  cent  more  than  would  have  been  expected;  truck 
traffic  rose  from  1,438  cars  per  week  to  2,740,  38  per  cent  more  than  would 
have  been  expected.  But  freight  conditions  were  not  constant:  the  191 8  count 
was  made  after  ^bout  two  years  of  freight-car  shortages  and  embargoes;  the 
1920  count  at  the  end  of  four  years  of  such  stimuli  to  highway   transport. 

There  seems  to  be  no  such  simple  way  to  count  the  traffic  between  two 
cities  and  then  let  them  grow  farther  apart  or  nearer  together  and  count 
them  again.  However,  it  is  possible  to  figure  the  population  products  of  all 
the  cities  along  a  given  road,  and,  after  dividing  the  products  of  each  pair 
by  the  distance  between  them,  add  all  the  resulting  quotients  together  and 
compare  this  sum,  which  we  have  called  the  "traffic  factor,"  with  counted 
traffic.  For  most  roads  there  are  more  than  two  cities,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  counting  point,  to  be  considered;  and,  in  the  actual  comparisons  made, 
traffic  between  cities  more  than  50  or  60  miles  apart  was  assumed  to  be  so 
small  it  could  be  safely  neglected. 

Four  counts  on  three  paved  roads  have  been  so  compared.  These 
comparisons  indicated  that  in  northeastern  Ohio  an  average  of  45  tons  of 
freight  and  seventy  passenger  cars  may  be  expected  to  travel  the  road  annually 
for  each  unit  of  traffic  factor,  populations  being  expressed  in  thousands  and 
distances  in  miles.  Variations  from  this  average  on  different  roads  and  at 
different  times  indicate  a  probable  error  of  15  per  cent  in  this  result. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  compare  this  figure  with  the  average  of  less  than 
carload  lot  rail  shipments.  A  study  of  several  annual  reports  of  railroads 
indicates  that  about  5  per  cent  of  the  total  rail  tonnage  comes  in  1.  c.  1. ; 
for  the  country,  then,  the  average  would  be  about  a  ton  per  capita  annually. 
The  total  of  the  traffic  factors  of  all  highways  extending  out  from  Akron, 
excluding  traffic  through  the  city,  is  9,514,  indicating  a  potential  highway 
freight  movement  of  438,000  tons  in  or  out  annually.  More  than  half  of 
this  potential  highway  movement  is  due  to  the  proximity  of  Cleveland.  In 
other  words,  in  Akron's  peculiar  situation  we  may  provide  for  nearly  twice 
as   much  highway  traffic   as  we   have   1.   c.   1.   railroad   shipments. 

So  far,  we  have  developed  a  rational  method  of  estimating  the  probable 
through  traffic  which  may  be  expected  after  a  road  has  been  improved  by 
paving  and  traffic  given  time  to  develop.  The  next  step  is  to  discover  what 
unit   savings    a    road   improvement   will   make. 

Two-ton  truck  tests  reported  in  the  Iowa  Service  Bulletin  indicate  that 
such  a  truck  will  go  nearly  four  times  as  fast  and  burn  only  half  as  much 
gasoline  on  a  paved  road  as  on  an  earth  road.  Speed  increases  and  gasolipe 
economies  are  less,  proportionately,  for  macadam  and  gravel  surfaces  than 
for  paving,  but  great  enough  to  offer  real  savings. 


44  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

•  Speed  lessens  certain  costs  per  ton-mile,  such  as  driver,  insurance,  obso- 
lescence, interest,  and  garaging,  all  of  which  total  about  so  much  every  day 
whether  the  truck  runs  fast  or  slowly.  In  Bulletin  No.  393,  the  Bureau  of 
Public  Roads  indicates  that  these  per  diem  items  total  about  40  per  cent 
of  the  total  charges  on  an  improved  road. 

There  are  certain  other  costs  such  as  gasoline,  oil,  tires,  repairs  and 
general  wear  and  tear  which  depend  more  directly  on  the  power  used  per 
mile;  these  items  may  be  expected  to  drop  as  the  miles  per  gallon  rise. 

Truck  hauling  costs  vary  widely  with  price  levels,  the  make  of  truck, 
its  size,  the  efficiency  of  its  use,  and  the  roadway  it  goes  over.  A  year's 
test  by  a  truck  manufacturer  of  two  machines  operated  over  pavement 
indicated  average  costs  of  about  5  cents  per  ton-mile.  If,  over  an  earth 
road,  these  machines  traveled  a  little  over  a  fourth  as  fast,  the  two-cent 
per  ton-mile  cost  for  time  items  would  rise  to  seven  cents;  and  if  they 
used  twice  the  gasoline  per  mile,  the  three-cent  power  charge  would  rise 
to  six  cents,  making  the  total  charge  thirteen  cents  a  ton-mile  on  an  unim- 
proved earth  road  against  five  on  a  pavement,  a  saving  of  eight  cents  per 
ton-mile  on  pavement.  Macadam  surface  would  cost  about  seven  cents 
a  ton-mile  less  than  earth,  gravel  about  five. 

The  cost  of  passenger  car  operation  has  been  estimated  to  average  eight 
cents  a  car-mile  on  pavement;  being  sufficiently  powerful  to  make  reason- 
able speed  over  almost  any  sort  of  surface,  the  passenger  car  saving  will 
be  more  nearly  proportional  to  power  demands — gas  consumption  per  mile. 
On  such  a  basis,  the  savings  due  to  a  pavement  may  average  about  eight  cents 
a  mile,  macadam  six  cents,  and  gravel  three. 

At  a  little  over  eight  cents  a  ton-mile,  45  tons  per  year,  the  tonnage  per 
unit  of  traffic  factor,  justify  a  maximum  paved  road  charge  of  anything  less 
than  $3.64  per  mile.  Similarly,  at  slightly  less  than  eight  cents  a  passenger 
car-mile,  seventy  passenger  cars  a  year  justify  an  expense  of  anything  up 
to  five  dollars  and  a  half  a  year.  This  limiting  expenditure  of  $9.14  per 
mile  per  traffic  factor,  if  undiminished  by  any  maintenance  charges  what- 
soever, will  carry  about  $70  in  ten-year,  5  per  cent  annuity  bonds.  Limits 
for  macadam  and  gravel  improvements,  determined  in  the  same  way,  approxi- 
mate $57  and  $34  per  mile,  respectively.     Such  is  the  evidence  that: 

Investments  in  road  improvements  for  through  or  intercity  traffic  ought  not 
to  exceed,  in  northeastern  Ohio,  $34  to  $70  a  mile,  multiplied  by  the 
product  of  the  populations,  in  thousands,  of  the  cities  connected  and  divided 
by  the  distance  between  them  in  miles. 

Rural  Traffic 

What  is  a  highway  improvement  worth  to  the  farmer? 

Two  solutions  suggest  themselves.  One  comprises  a  study  of  farm-to- 
market  hauling  costs  under  different  conditions;  the  other  the  capitalization 
of  both  hauling  and  social  returns  in  land  values. 

In  191 7,  in  Hudson  township.  Summit  County,  with  60  per  cent  of  the 
area  seeded,  an  average  of  three-quarters  of  a  ton  of  produce  and  supplies 


Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport  45 

were  hauled,  for  each  gross  acre  of  farm  land;  hauls  averaged  2.38  miles, 
or  i^  ton-miles  per  acre. 

A  team  and  driver  at  $7  a  ten-hour  day  might  be  expected  to  haul  a 
ton  on  unimproved  earth  roads  at  2  miles  an  hour  loaded  and  to  return 
at  3  miles  an  hour  empty.  A  ton-mile  haul  then  w^ould  cost  a  half  plus 
a  third  of  seventy  cents,  or  fifty-eight  cents.  Hauling  for  the  average  acre 
vv^ould  cost  1)4-  times  fifty-eight  cents  or  just  over  a  dollar  an  acre  a  year. 
Improved  roads  ought  to  save  some  of  this  dollar  an   acre   a  year. 

Suppose,  by  saving  an  unusual  part  of  the  crop  by  quick  hauling,  or  by 
permitting  hauling  at  slack  times  of  the  year,  or  by  allowing  delivery  when 
farm  stuff  prices  are  highest,  the  improvement  saves  the  entire  dollar. 
This  dollar  an  acre  a  year  will  pay  5  per  cent  interest  on  and  retire  the 
principal  of  a  loan  of  less  than  $8  an  acre  in  ten  years.     Therefore : 

If  hauling  savings  were  all  the  benefit  farmers  in  northeastern  Ohio 
got  from  road  improvement,  less  than  $8  an  acre  would  be  the  limit  they 
should  be  charged  or  that  should  be  invested  for  their  benefit. 

There  are  other  benefits:  broadening  opportunities  to  visit,  to  go  to  town, 
to  church,  to  school.  An  idea  of  the  farmer's  valuation  of  the  sum  of  these 
social  values  and  the  reduced  hauling  costs  may  be  had  by  investigating  farm 
land  values  along  roads  before  and  after  they  are  improved. 

Abutting  the  Akron-Copley  pavement,  built  in  191 7  and  19 19,  twenty-one 
tracts  containing  583  acres  increased  in  taxable  values  $25  more  an  acre 
between  191 5  and  1920  than  did  the  average  of  the  entire  township.  An 
investigation  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  Bulletin  393,  1916, 
in  eight  counties  scattered  from  New  York  to  Mississippi,  showed  increases 
in  farm  land  sales  values  of  from  $5  to  $31  an  acre  on  abutting  farms 
after  improvement. 

Twenty-five  dollars  an  acre  seems,  therefore,  a  reasonable  estimate  of 
the  benefit  of  an  improved  road  to  the  owner  of  average  abutting  farm 
property.  In  Summit  County  there  are  about  340  acres  to  each  mile  of 
road.  Three  hundred  and  forty  times  $25  an  acre  gives  an  $8,500  benefit  to 
farm  lands  for  each  mile  of  improvement.     This,  then,  is  the  evidence  that: 

Investments  in  road  improvements  for  the  benefit  of  rural  traffic  should 
be  limited,  in  northeastern  Ohio,  to  $8,500  a  mile. 

Interior  or  Terminal  Traffic 

Inside  city  limits,  road  traffic  involves  complications  and  densities  which 
it  is  no  part  of  this  discussion  to  consider.  Under  one  condition,  however, 
provision  for  city  traffic  may  require  consideration  by  highway  authorities, 
when  allotments  extend  beyond  city  limits. 

Such  traffic,  or  prospective  traffic  in  the  case  of  projected  allotments, 
is  identical  with  interior  traffic  and  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  be  pro- 
vided for  in  the  same  way:  by  the  construction  of  streets  wholly  or  almost 
wholly  paid  for  by  special  assessment  on  benefited  property. 

Suppose  it  is  not.  Assuming  it  is  fair  for  the  public  to  gamble  on  the 
success  of  a  proposed  allotment,  it  ought  also  to  be  fair  to  limit  the  public's 
contribution    for    highway    improvement    for    such    traffic    to    the    maximum 


46  Highway  Economics  and  Highway  Transport 

possible  return  such  a  development  might  make   to  the  public's  road  funds. 

In  Summit  County,  Ohio,  the  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal 
property  in  the  entire  county,  exclusive  of  Akron,  averages  $550  sCti  acre; 
Akron  averages  $23,300  an  acre.  Development  of  average  county  property 
into  average  city  property  might  be  expected  to  raise  tax  valuations  not  more 
than  $22,750  an  acre.  County  road  taxes  total  thirty-one  cents  per  $1,000 
in  192 1 ;  a  $22,750  increase  in  valuation  per  acre  will  return  $7.05  an  acre 
to  the  county  road  funds;  $7.05  will  pay  5  per  cent  interest  on  and  retire 
a  loan  of  $54.50  in  ten  years.  At  $50,000  a  mile,  which  is  less  than  some 
recent  road  paving  contracts  have  been  let  for  in  this  county,  it  would 
require  918  acres,  or  nearly  i^  square  miles,  to  be  raised  $22,750  per 
acre  each  in  order  to  pay  the  public  for  building  one  mile  of  paved  highway. 
Fully  developed,  this  area  would  have  about  49  miles  in  its  street  system. 
Such  is  the  evidence,  then,  that  the  financing  of  all  or  any  material  part  of 
highway  improvements  for  suburban  traffic  by  general  taxation  serves  only 
to  increase  tax  burdens  without  compensating  returns. 

Most  such  traffic  comprises  light  residential  movements  existing  almost 
solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  immediate  neighborhood.  Financed  entirely  by 
special  assessment,  road  improvements  for  suburban  traffic  may  be  distinctly 
worth  while  from  a  local  benefit  standpoint.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
in  the  history  of  street  paving,  many  cities  which  were  almost  entirely  "in 
the  mud"  as  long  as  the  general  city  funds  were  required  to  carry  the 
burden  of  paving,  have  been  getting  out  quite  rapidly  after  shifting  the 
burden  to  abutting  property  owners. 

Specific  Applications 

We  have  applied  these  principles  to  an  analysis  of  our  highway  system 
in  Summit  County.  We  have  invested,  or  are  planning  to  invest,  four  mil- 
lion dollars  on  highway  improvements.  Capitalized,  the  returns  from  this 
outlay  total  a  little  over  eleven  and  a  half  million,  leaving  a  reserve  for  main- 
tenance and  for  service  dividends  of  about  seven  and  a  half  millions. 

Unfortunately,  there  is  a  darker  side.  Half  of  this  four  millions  has 
been  spent  on  improvements  worth  only  about  nine  hundred  thousand  dollars 
if  they  cost  nothing  for  maintenance.  An  outlay  of  only  two  millions  might 
have  left  us  eight  million  and  a  half  for  maintenance  and  surplus,  much 
more  than  doubling  our  return  per  dollar  of  outlay.  And,  most  serious  of 
all,  every  single  one  of  our  1921  projects  appears  in  the  loss  column,  the 
excess  of  cost  over  returns  for  eleven  hundred  thousand  dollars'  outlay 
planned  for   192 1,  totaling  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

Conclusion 

Many  of  the  figures  used  in  this  paper  are  approximations  which  future 
research,  I  hope,  may  make  more  exact.  But  the  significance  of  great 
precision  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  doubling  returns  would  shift  only 
17  per  cent  of  the  roads  from  unprofitable  into  the  profitable  class;  and 
halving  them  throws  only  12  per  cent  from  the  profitable  into  the  unprofitable. 


ifS^I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


^'m 


LIBRARY  USE 

JAN  15  1953 

MNIB 1355  lit 


Ll>  21-100m-7,'52(A2528sl6)476 


Mmnv/aclureJ  hy 

;  6AYLORD  BROS.  Iac  ; 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

StockVofi,  CM. 


